Potassium

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Potassium

Facts

Why potassium is good for you

Potassium, along with sodium and chloride, is an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a mineral that dissolves in water and carries an electrical charge. Since the body is mostly made up of water, electrolytes are found everywhere in the body – inside the cells, in the spaces between cells, in the blood, in lymph glands and everywhere else. Potassium has a positive charge (as does sodium, while chloride has a negative charge). Because electrolytes have electrical charges, they can move easily back and forth through cell membranes. This is important because as they move into a cell, they carry other nutrients in with them and as they move out of it, they carry out waste products and excess water.

To keep body fluid levels in balance, cells need to have a lot of potassium inside them and a lot of sodium in the fluids outside them. To keep the balance, sodium and potassium constantly move back and forth through the cell membranes.

Potassium is required to to enable all the muscles in the body (both skeletal and smooth muscles) to contract efficiently. Many muscles have special channels so that potassium can move either freely or with the assistance of a special pump, in and out of cells to help with the muscle contraction.

Controlling potassium distribution in the cells is a very high priority for the body because if it is in deficit, it can negatively affect the heart and heartbeart. Anyone with a heart condition might also retain too much water because the heart is not pumping very well

All three electrolytes – potassium, sodium and chloride – keep the amount of water in the body in balance, carry impulses along the nerves, help make muscles contract and relax and keep the body from becoming too acidic or alkaline. Electrolytes are also required to carry glucose (blood sugar) and other nutrients into the cells and to carry waste products and extra water out again. Electrolytes also regulate blood pressure and heartbeat.

Potassium, as well as the other electrolytes (chloride and sodium), but especially potassium are needed to help regulate the extra fluid that pregnant women experience during pregnancy

Important potassium facts

Potassium:

  • is important in maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance
  • is important for maintaining cell integrity
  • helps to convert glucose into glycogen so it can be stored in the liver and muscles, which will be later released when required.
  • works together with sodium and chloride to keep the amount of water in the cells and around them (ie blood) at the right levels. Sometimes the fluid balance gets a little out of whack – extra hormones might make cause water retention; this often happens to women before and during their periods.
  • is required to enable nerve impulse to relay signals with rapid transmission throughout the body
  • primary role is inside the cells of the body, where it helps to control the amount of fluid in the cells and enzyme reactions in the cells
  • helps the cells absorb various nutrients through the cell membrane
  • enables toxins and waste products to be removed from the cells
  • helps to remove excess fluid from inside the cells

Potassium works best with

Health

Potassium and health

  • High blood pressure – studies show that people who eat a low potassium, high sodium diet are more likely to have high blood pressure. Studies also show that if a person already has high blood pressure, eating less sodium can help bring it down. Studies also show that eating potassium-rich fruits and vegetables reduce high blood pressure and its complications, such as stroke. Uncontrolled high blood pressure can lead to heart disease, kidney disease and stroke
  • Regular heartbeat – potassium is especially important in ensuring that the heartbeat is regular, through the function that potassium has on muscle contraction by having a beneficial effect on electrical activity in the heart so that it is healthy and the heartbeat is normal
  • Stroke prevention – even for people who do not have high blood pressure, potassium could help protect against having a stroke. If potassium intake is low, the odds of having a stroke go up, no matter what other risk factors exist in an individual. According to one long-term study of older adults, just one daily serving of a potassium-rich food could cut the risk of a stroke by 40%! That equals just one banana, glass of orange juice or baked potato a day. And if more than one serving is eaten in one day, the odds against having a stroke may improve even more
  • Regulates acidity in the body – potassium’s role in regulating the extracellular fluid (the fluid outside the cells and between them), it is also required to help regulate the pH level (acidity) of all body fluids so that they remain at an appropriate and healthy level

People who wish to take a potassium supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

Deficiency

Groups at risk of potassium deficiency

In general, deficiency in any of the electrolytes, including potassium does not normally occur as not much is required to meet RDI and most people get enough potassium from their foods.

The only people who may be at a risk for a potassium deficiency are:

  • People that have been vomiting or have severe diarrhoea – will be eliminating most of the chloride in the body and will need to restore the electrolyte balance. A medical professional will usually prescribe an over-the-counter electrolyte remedy for to take. Fluid loss must be replaced by drinking a lot of water. It is vital for small children and babies to replace the water and electrolytes lost from vomiting and diarrhoea, as it can be a serious problem if they are not
  • People who smoke cigarettes – smoking tobacco cigarettes can cause a potassium deficiency (as well as deficiency in many other vitamins and minerals) and supplementation may be needed

People who wish to take a potassium supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

In general, deficiency in any of the electrolytes, including potassium does not normally occur

Symptoms of potassium deficiency

  • muscle cramps in the legs (this sometimes happens to athletes who sweat a lot in really hot weather)
  • nausea
  • weakness and lethargy
  • confusion
  • in severe cases, the heart could fail, but this happens only in a small percentage of cases, if the fluids are not quickly replaced or if there is an underlying heart condition

People who experience any of the symptoms above should seek the advice of their doctor about potassium supplementation

Food sources

Potassium in food

FOODAMOUNTpotassium (mg)
Potato, baked with skin1 medium844
Black beans1 cup801
Lentils1 cup731
Kidney beans1 cup713
Prune juice1 cup706
Tomato juice1 cup658
Avocado½ medium550
Cantaloupe1 cup494
Chickpeas1 cup477
Orange juice1 cup474
Banana1 medium451
Spinach, cooked½ cup419
Sweet potato1 medium397
Milk1 cup381
Flounder230g292
Tomato1 medium273
Wheat germ¼ cup259
Okra½ cup257
Kiwi fruit1 medium252
Orange1 medium250
Strawberries1 cup247
Carrot, raw1 medium233
Broccoli, cooked½ cup228
Beef mince85g205
Corn½ cup204
Cauliflower, cooked½ cup200
Chicken85g195
Watermelon1 cup186

 

Daily intake

Potassium recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		400mg
700mg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		300mg
3800mg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		4500mg
4700mg
ADULTS19-50yrs4700mg
SENIORS51+yrs4700mg
PREGNANTall ages4700mg
LACTATINGall ages5100mg
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITnone established
Toxic Levels>10000mg (or >10g)

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

Toxicity

Toxicity levels of potassium

Potassium toxicity does not occur through nutritional intake of foods high in potassium. It only happens when supplements high in potassium are taken or through certain diseases or treatments.

Acute potassium toxicity

Acute toxicity of potassium from taking too much in potassium supplements – over 12,000mg (12g) – can cause the following symptoms:

* People who experience the highlighted symptoms should seek immediate emergency treatment.

Chronic potassium toxicity

Chronic toxicity of potassium from taking higher than the therapeutic dose of potassium supplements (more than 5,000mg) for a long time can cause the following symptoms:

  • Confusion
  • Elevated potassium levels
  • Heart attack
  • Kidney failure
  • Lethargy and fatigue
  • Nausea
  • Paralysis, numbness or heaviness of legs or arms
  • Tingling in hands or feet

People experiencing any of the above toxicity symptoms should discontinue their potassium supplements and seek medical advice. Overdosage and toxicity is more likely to occur from taking too many supplements, whereas dietary intake of potassium is highly unlikely to cause overdosage.

Precautions

Precautions

Certain people should not take potassium supplements as they could cause severe and toxic effects:

  • People with kidney or liver disease
  • People taking potassium-sparing diuretics
  • People with hyperkalaemia (high potassium blood levels)

Other people should seek medical advice before taking potassium supplements:

  • People with Addison’s disease
  • People with heart disease
  • People taking heart medications
  • People with diabetes
  • People taking heart medication
  • People taking diuretics
  • People with gastrointestinal disorders
  • People with chronic diarrhoea or taking laxatives for diarrhoea
  • People using low-sodium salt substitutes

Interactions

Potassium interactions with medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause a reaction with potassium supplements:

  • ACE inhibitors (Captopril, Enalapril, Llisinopril
    ACE inhibitors such as captopril, enalapril, and lisinopril (used for people with high blood pressure and heart failure) taken together with potassium supplements, can elevate blood potassium levels.
  • Amiloride
    Amiloride, a medication used for reducing blood pressure and fluid retention can cause potassium levels to be highly elevated so taking potassium supplements with this medication is not advised, as it can result in a condition called hyperkalaemia (high blood potassium levels), which has serious and adverse health implications.
  • Atropine or Belladonna
    If potassium supplements are taken at the same time as Atropine (which is derived from Belladonna), a medication use to control diarrhoea, could cause an exacerbation of the side effects of this medication, which are: gastrointestinal problems, including ulcers and vomiting.
  • Beta-blockers (Metoprolol and Propranolol)
    Beta-blockers such as metoprolol and propranolol (used to treat people with high blood pressure and arrhythmias) taken at the same time as potassium supplements can decrease the uptake of potassium from the blood into the cells, causing an excess of potassium in the blood, which is a potentially dangerous condition – hyperkalaemia
  • Calcium
    If potassium supplements are taken at the same time as calcium supplements, the combination can increase the risk of having irregular heartbeat.
  • Cortisone
    Cortisone (use to treat inflammatory disorders such as arthritis) can cause low blood levels of potassium as a side effect and if taken with potassium, may inactivate the potassium and decrease the effect of the supplement.
  • Cyclosporine
    Cyclosporine (used after organ transplant to prevent rejection of the new organ) can cause high blood potassium levels (Hyperkalaemia) as a side effect, so if it is taken at the same time as potassium supplements may cause dangerously high blood levels of potassium. Potassium supplements should not be taken with Cyclosporine.
  • Digitalis preparations
    Digitalis preparations (used to treat heart disease) can cause interfere with potassium absorption by either increasing or decreasing it and if this medications is taken with potassium supplements, can cause an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia). Potassium supplements should not be taken with digitalis preparations.
  • Diuretics
    Diuretics such as Spironolactone, Tramterene, Thiazide and Loop diuretics (used to lower blood pressure and for heart failure) can cause low blood levels of potassium as a side effect and if taken with potassium, may inactivate the potassium and decrease the effect of the supplement.
  • Heparin
    Heparin (used to break up blood clots in arteries) may increase risk of elevation of potassium levels (hyperkalaemia) when taken with a potassium supplement.
  • Laxatives
    Laxatives (used to empty the bowels) may increase elimination of potassium and cause lowered blood potassium levels.
  • Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
    Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen (used to relieve inflammation and pain) may cause an elevated risk of blood potassium levels (hyperkalaemia). Potassium supplements should not be taken with NSAIDs.
  • Theophylline
    Theophylline (used to treat COPD and asthma) may increase elimination of potassium and cause lowered blood potassium levels.
  • Tramterene
    Triamterene is a potassium-sparing diuretic (water pill) that prevents your body from absorbing too much salt, if taken at the same time as potassium supplements may cause an elevated risk of blood potassium levels (hyperkalaemia). Potassium supplements should not be taken with Tramterene
  • Trimethoprim
    Trimethoprim (an antibiotic used for bacterial infections), if taken at the same time as potassium supplements may cause an elevated risk of blood potassium levels (hyperkalaemia). Potassium supplements should not be taken with Trimethoprim.
  • Vitamin B12
    Vitamin B12 (cobalamin), if taken together with potassium supplements, especially if the vitamin B12 (cobalamin) supplements are extended-release tablets, can reduce absorption of vitamin B12 (cobalamin).

Other interactions with selenium

There are none reported.

Selenium’s effect on lab tests

There are none reported.

References

References

  • Hermansen K. Diet, blood pressure and hypertension. Br J Nutr. 2000:83(Suppl 1):S113-119
  • Krauss RM, Eckel RH, Howard B, et al. AHA dietary guidelines. Revision 2000: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;102:2284-2299
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. Bio-Concepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Perazella MA. Trimethoprim-induced hyperkalemia: clinical data, mechanism, prevention and management. Drug Saf. 2000;22(3):227-236
  • Ray K, Dorman S, Watson R. Severe hyperkalemia due to the concomitant use of salt substitutes and ACE inhibitors in hypertension: a potentially life threatening interaction. J Hum Hypertens. 1999;13(10):717-720
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002
  • USDA National Nutrient Database – provides nutrient values for foods (accessed 5 January 2005)

Last updated: 6 May 2024

Silica

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Silica

Facts

Why silica is good for you

Silica is a trace mineral, which means the body only needs a very small amount of it to stay healthy.

Silica is found most predominantly in the connective tissues – skin, blood vessels, cartilage, bone, teeth, tendons and hair. Silica is really beneficial for the health of blood vessel walls (the aorta is has really high concentrations of silica).

Silica is used to keep bones, cartilage, tendons, blood vessels and artery walls healthy. It is also required by the nails, hair and skin to stay in good condition and is useful in counteracting the effects of excessive aluminium in the body, which is implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s disease.

Silica is also involved in the formation of healthy bone tissue and collagen, the framework which makes the body “stick” together, without which, the body would fall apart.

Important silica facts

  • Silica is short for silicon dioxide
  • Silica is also called silicon and is a natural substance while silicone is a man-made industrial substance which is popularly used in breast enlargement operations
  • Silica is present in soil, plants and water
  • Silica has a similar healing effect on cartilage and joint degeneration as sulphur
  • Silica is important for the health of hair, skin and nails
  • Silica is needed by the body to make the connective tissue collagen
  • Water, as well as beer and coffee (both made with water) are the main ways most people get adequate intake of silica (over half of the daily intake).
  • Beer can contain anywhere from 19-60mg silica per kg of beer (approximately 1 litre of beer), which provides adequate intake of silica, but it may not be a heart healthy decision to drink that much beer every day
  • Some anti-caking and anti-foaming additives in foods are are made from silica
  • Silica may help to counter the effects of too much aluminium in the body, which some studies suggest is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease

Silica works best with

Health

Silica and health

  • Ageing – silica levels drop as people age and it might therefore be beneficial as an anti-aging component in the diet of older people. In addition to this, silica helps to mitigate any adverse health effects that aluminium have on the body, in particular as a risk factor in the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Several studies show that silica may play a role in prevention of this disorder, but more studies are needed to confirm the results of initial studies
  • Atherosclerosis – studies show that silica may play an important role in ensuring the blood vessels and particularly, the walls of arteries (which get clogged up in people with atherosclerosis) are healthy and functioning correctly
  • Bone health – silica looks promising as a way to completely heal bone fractures as it in needed by the body to help with bone health and reduce risk of osteoporosis. While results from initial studies are positive, more research needs to be done in this area to confirm this ability

People who wish to take a silica supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

Deficiency

Groups at risk of silica deficiency

Nobody has ever been found to be deficient in this essential mineral.

Symptoms of silica deficiency

It is unlikely that a silica deficiency would occur in many people, but if it did, it is thought that it may result in the following deficiency symptoms:

  • Problems with the teeth and bones (decay and softening)
  • Hardening of the arteries

Food sources

Silica in food

FOODAMOUNTSilica (mg)
Beer1 litre19.2 – 60
Banana (yellow peeled)250g13.6
High bran cereal100g10.2
Bread (wholegrain)200g8.9
Raisin (California seedless)100g8.3
Mineral water (high silica)500mL7.2
Green beans (cooked)250g6.1
Carrot (raw, peeled)200g4.6
Bread (wholemeal)200g4.5
Brown rice200g4.1
Mineral water (regular)500mL3.4
Bread (white)200g3.4
Wheat biscuits (Vita Wheats)100g2.8
White rice200g2.5
Cornflakes100g2.4
Lettuce, iceberg (raw)250g1.0

Silica is also present in the following foods:

Daily intake

Silica recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-12mthsn/a**
CHILDREN1-8yrsn/a**
CHILDREN9-18yrsn/a**
ADULTS19-50yrs9-14mg†
SENIORS51+yrsn/a**
PREGNANTall agesn/a**
LACTATINGall agesn/a**
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-12mthsn/a*
CHILDREN1-8yrsn/a*
CHILDREN9-18yrsn/a*
ADULTS19-50yrs20-30mg†
SENIORS51+yrs20-30mg†
PREGNANTall agesn/a*
LACTATINGall agesn/a*
Toxic LevelsMay produce toxicity at levels higher than 700mg§ (silicon), whereas horsetail supplements can be taken at higher levels, but should not be taken long term and not at excessive levels and only under medical supervision for a known silica deficiency

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

** The recommended daily intake for silica for infants, children and pregnant / lactating women has not yet been determined due to a lack of data about the adverse effects in this age group. The only source of silica intake should be from food.

* The tolerable upper limit for silica for infants, children and pregnant / lactating women has not yet been determined due to a lack of data about the adverse effects in this age group. The only source of silica intake should be from food.

† The recommended daily intake and tolerable upper limit are derived from the Nutrient Bible by Henry Osiecki. Studies also show that general human intake from food is between 30-50mg per day

The USDA does not give any values for either recommended daily intake nor for tolerable upper limit of silica and suggests that there is not enough data about safety of supplements and that dietary intake should be adequate.

§ The Food Standards Agency UK suggests that intake of silica supplements less than 700mg per day should not produce harmful side effects in most people, but you should be able to get all your silica requirements from your diet.

Toxicity

Toxic levels of silica

Silica is toxic at doses greater than 100mg.

Overdosage and toxicity symptoms

If silica supplements that are much higher than the tolerable upper limit are taken, then they can cause the following toxicity symptoms:

  • Bruising
  • Silicosis
  • Skin rash
  • Stomach irritation

People experiencing any of the above toxicity symptoms should discontinue their silica supplements and seek medical advice.

Silicon dioxide vs horsetail supplements

It is thought though, that silicon dioxide (silica) supplements are more toxic at lower levels than those from the herb horsetail, which can generally be safely taken at higher levels, but neither supplements should be taken at excessively high levels for long periods as they can cause toxicity symptoms. The type and severity of toxicity symptoms depends on the individual’s tolerance levels.

Long-term use or very high doses of horsetail (or silica) supplements have caused irreversible kidney damage, especially in people with existing kidney or heart disease. People with oedema (fluid retention) should also not take silica (or horsetail) supplements.

Overdosage and toxicity is more likely to occur from taking too many supplements, whereas dietary intake of silica is highly unlikely to cause overdosage.

Silicosis

Silicosis is a health condition that occurs when silica dust particles are inhaled. It causes an inflammation and scarring of the lungs, which causes fibrosis of the lungs. The silica dust enters the lungs and irritates them continuously and reduces the capacity of the lung, as silica does not dissolve over time. This condition can be a health hazard for people working with sandblasting equipment and who do not wear protective head gear.

It is also a problem that occurs when people are exposed to silica dust when working with engineered stone. It is such a big health problem that the use, supply and manufacture of engineered stone will be banned in Australian from 1 July 2024.

Precautions

General warnings and precautions

Certain people should not take silica supplements:

  • Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding
    Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should not take silica supplements due to the unknown effect on the unborn foetus and young infant.There is also no recommended daily intake of silica for women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, due to the unknown effects on the child.

Other warnings

Studies show that diatomaceous earth industry workers who were exposed to crystalline silica during the course of the excavation and mining of diatomaceous earth have a higher than expected rate of death from cancers related to silica exposure and inhalation.

There is a lot of conflicting information about this mineral, so people who want to take a silica (or horsetail) supplement should always exercise caution. Seek advice from a doctor before trying any silica (or horsetail) supplements, especially at high doses.

Interactions

Interactions with medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause a reaction with silica supplements:

  • Aluminium
    Silica helps the body detoxify of excess levels of aluminium in the body, by binding with the aluminium and allowing it to be eliminated out of the body before it can cause any damaging effects.
  • Calcium, magnesium, manganese, potassium
    Absorption and utilisation of silica is enhanced by the minerals calcium, magnesium, manganese, potassium

There are no adverse interactions between silica and medications

Other interactions with silica

There are none reported.

Silica’s effect on lab tests

There are none reported.

References

References

  • Food Agency UK. Risk Assessment – Silicon. Accessed 15 January 2010
  • Food Agency UK – Silicon. Accessed 15 January 2010
  • Gillette Guyonnet S, Andrieu S, Vellas B. The potential influence of silica present in drinking water on Alzheimer’s disease and associated disorders. J Nutr Health Aging. 2007 Mar-Apr;11(2):119-24
  • Murray M and Pizzorno J. Encyclopedia of Natural Medicine. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing, 1991
  • Nielsen FH. How should dietary guidance be given for mineral elements with beneficial actions or suspected of being essential? J Nutr. 1996 Sep;126(9 Suppl):2377S-2385S
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. Bio-Concepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Park R, Rice F, Stayner L, Smith R, Gilbert S, Checkoway H. Exposure to crystalline silica, silicosis, and lung disease other than cancer in diatomaceous earth industry workers: a quantitative risk assessment. Occup Environ Med. 2002 Jan;59(1):36-43
  • Rice FL, Park R, Stayner L, Smith R, Gilbert S, Checkoway H. Crystalline silica exposure and lung cancer mortality in diatomaceous earth industry workers: a quantitative risk assessment. Occup Environ Med. 2001 Jan;58(1):38-45
  • Robberecht H, Van Cauwenbergh R, Van Vlaslaer V, Hermans N. Dietary silicon intake in Belgium: Sources, availability from foods, and human serum levels. Sci Total Environ. 2009 Aug 1;407(16):4777-82. Epub 2009 May 31
  • Rondeau V, Jacqmin-Gadda H, Commenges D, Helmer C, Dartigues JF. Aluminum and silica in drinking water and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease or cognitive decline: findings from 15-year follow-up of the PAQUID cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2009 Feb 15;169(4):489-96. Epub 2008 Dec 8
  • Sivak O, Darlington J, Gershkovich P, Constantinides PP, Wasan KM. Protonated nanostructured aluminosilicate (NSAS) reduces plasma cholesterol concentrations and atherosclerotic lesions in Apolipoprotein E deficient mice fed a high cholesterol and high fat diet. Lipids Health Dis. 2009 Jul 28;8:30
  • Trincă L, Popescu O, Palamaru I. Serum lipid picture of rabbits fed on silicate-supplemented atherogenic diet. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 1999 Jan-Jun;103(1-2):99-102
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002
  • US National Library of Medicine – Horsetail. Accessed 15 January 2010
  • Australian Government Department of Employment and Workplace Relations – Prohibition on the use of engineered stone. Accessed 6 May 2024

Last updated: 6 May 2024

Phosphorus

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Phosphorus

Facts

Why phosphorus is good for you

Phosphorus is an essential mineral that is required by every cell in the body for normal bodily function. Phosphorus is found not just in the bones and teeth, but also in all cells of the body. Phosphorus is also part of DNA and RNA, so it is necessary for growth and development.

Phosphorus is very involved with bone and teeth formation as well as most metabolic actions in the body, including kidney functioning, cell growth and the contraction of the heart muscle.

The main inorganic component of bone is calcium phosphate salts while cell membranes are composed largely of phospholipids. While phosphorus assists the body in vitamin use (especially some B group vitamins), it is also involved in converting food to energy.

Important phosphorus facts

  • Phosphorus can be found in the bones, teeth, muscles, blood and other soft tissues
  • Phosphorus from nuts, seeds, and grains is about 50% less bio-available than phosphorus from other sources such as meat, chicken and dairy products
  • Aluminium hydroxide used in antacids may interfere with the absorption of phosphorus but it is unlikely to cause a deficiency of phosphorus, as phosphorus is so abundant in foods in most diets
  • Calcium and phosphorus must be balanced in the diet
  • Phosphorus helps the body absorb calcium from foods
  • The kidney, bones, intestines regulate phosphorus to be at healthy levels
  • The B-vitamins need phosphorus to help them perform their various metabolic processes more effectively
  • Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body
  • It makes up ATP, the body’s major source of energy
  • Reduced not enough phosphorus is absorbed from food or there is excessive loss in urine can cause rickets and osteomalacia

Phosphorus works best with

Health

Phosphorus and health

  • Maintaining a proper pH level in the body
    Phosphorus is needed to help maintain a proper acid-base (pH) level in the body, so that the body tissues can remain in the correct pH level (which is necessary for maintaining immune status and correct metabolic functions) and stay healthy
  • Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body
    While calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body, phosphorus comes next, as the second most abundant mineral. The body needs relatively large amounts of phosphorus each day to function effectively.
  • Phosphorus helps the body absorb calcium from food
    Phosphorus works with calcium to ensure bones and teeth are strong and healthy. It also is required to help the body properly absorb the calcium from food eaten. Potassium helps the body absorb calcium from foods, so that the calcium can be used to re-mineralise the bones to ensure they are healthy and strong, thus preventing osteoporosis.
  • Phosphorus is part of DNA and RNA
    The DNA and RNA inside the cells contains phosphorus. DNA and RNA are involved in cell replication and hereditary functions.
  • Phosphorus and bone health
    Adequate levels of phosphorus and calcium are needed for bone growth and development. It is vital for bone mineralisation, to maintain bone strength and to help the bones repair after a fracture.

Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral – the body needs relatively large amounts of phosphorus each day to function effectively

Deficiency

Groups at risk of phosphorus deficiency

  • Alcoholics – alcohol blocks absorption less of most nutrients, including phosphorus and alcoholics generally eat poorly
  • Diabetics recovering from an episode of diabetic ketoacidosis – diabetics recovering from ketoacidosis will need supplementation of phosphorus.
  • Starving, malnourished or anorexic patients – may be on re-feeding regimens that are high in calories but too low in phosphorus

People in these groups at risk of deficiency should talk to a medical professional about phosphorus supplements before taking them.

Symptoms of phosphorus deficiency

Since phosphorus is so widespread in most food, dietary phosphorus deficiency is usually seen only in cases of near total starvation.

Inadequate phosphorus intake results in abnormally low serum phosphate levels (hypophosphataemia). The effects of hypophosphatemia, while rare, may include:

  • anemia
  • anxiety
  • changes in body weight
  • bone pain
  • difficulty walking
  • fatigue
  • increased susceptibility to infection
  • irregular breathing
  • loss of appetite
  • muscle weakness
  • numbness and tingling of the extremities
  • osteomalacia (in adults)
  • rickets (in children)
  • skin sensitivity.

Other major deficiency symptoms include the following:

  • Low calcium
    If calcium is in short supply relative to phosphorus there may be increased risks of high blood pressure and bowel cancer.
  • Bone health
    About 85% of the phosphorus in the body is in the bones and teeth. Inadequate absorption of phosphorus, resulting in deficiency can result in bone loss.
  • Heart disease
    Severe phosphorus deficiency can cause cardiomyopathy (enlarging of the heart), ventricular arrhythmia, heart failure and heart attack

Severe phosphorus deficiency (hypophosphatemia) may result in death.

Food sources

Phosphorus in food

FOODAMOUNTphosphorus (mg)
Yogurt, plain nonfat1 cup383
Lentils, cooked½ cup356
Fish, salmon, cooked85g252
Milk, skim1 cup247
Fish, halibut, cooked230g242
Beef, cooked85g173
Turkey, cooked85g173
Chicken, cooked85g155
Almonds30g139
Cheese, mozzarella; part skim30g131
Egg, cooked1 large104
Peanuts30g101
Bread, whole wheat1 slice64
Carbonated cola drink1 can (375ml)44
Bread, enriched white1 slice24

Daily intake

Phosphorus recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		100mg
275mg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		460mg
500mg
CHILDREN9-18yrs1250mg
ADULTS19-50yrs700mg
SENIORS51+yrs700mg
PREGNANT<18yrs
19-50yrs		1250mg
700mg
LACTATING<18yrs
19-50yrs		1250mg
700mg
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITlifestageageAMOUNT
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		n/a*
CHILDREN1-8yrs3000mg
CHILDREN9-18yrs4000mg
ADULTS19-50yrs4000mg
SENIORS51-70yrs
71+yrs		4000mg
3000mg
PREGNANTall ages3500mg
LACTATINGall ages4000mg
Toxic Levels>5,000mg

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

* The tolerable upper limit for phosphorus for infants aged 0-12 months has not yet been determined due to a lack of data about the adverse effects in this age group. The only source of phosphorus intake should be from food (breast milk and/or baby formula).

Toxicity

Acute phosphorus toxicity

Excessive levels of phosphorus supplements is not recommended, as they can cause a range of severe and toxic symptoms:

  • Hyperphosphatemia – high blood phosphorus levels
  • hypocalcaemia- high blood phosphorus levels
  • hypomagnesaemia- high blood magnesium levels
  • laxative effect
  • tetany

Chronic phosphorus toxicity 

Chronic toxicity can occur if high even levels over the recommended intake are taken over the long term. Symptoms include:

  • bone re-absorption and weakened bones
  • calcification of the heart and kidneys,
  • osteoporosis,
  • hypocalcaemia,
  • secondary parathyroidism
  • prevention of absorption of many minerals (ie calcium and chromium).

People experiencing any of the above toxicity symptoms should discontinue their phosphorus supplements and seek medical advice. Overdosage and toxicity is more likely to occur from taking too many supplements, whereas dietary intake of phosphorus is highly unlikely to cause overdosage.

Precautions

Precautions

People who regularly use antacids that contain aluminium, should be very careful with phosphorus supplements. It is not advisable to take them together or at all.

Potassium supplements or potassium-sparing diuretics taken together with a phosphate may result in high blood levels of potassium (hyperkalemia). Hyperkalaemia can be a serious problem, resulting in life threatening heart rhythm abnormalities (arrhythmia). People on such a combination need to be sure their health care provider is aware of it, and have their blood potassium levels checked regularly.

  • Chronic kidney disease
    People with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have kidneys that cannot excrete the extra phosphorus that may build up in the body. This means phosphorus can be highly elevated in the blood. The body will take calcium out of the bones to counter the high phosphorus levels, thus weakening bones.People with CKD are advised not to use phosphorus supplement, reduce intake of foods high in phosphorus and avoid phosphate additives.

Phosphorus additives found in foods include:

    • Dicalcium phosphate
    • Disodium phosphate
    • Monosodium phosphate
    • Phosphoric acid
    • Sodium hexameta-phosphate
    • Trisodium phosphate
    • Sodium tripolyphosphate
    • Tetrasodium pyrophosphate

Interactions

Interactions with medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause an adverse reaction with phosphorus supplements:

  • Anabolic steroids
    Anabolic steroids can reduce blood phosphorus levels to a level that it can increase the risk of fluid retention (oedema), due to the imbalance of the electrolytes, of which phosphorus is one (the others are calcium, chloride, potassium, sodium), especially in longer-term use of this medication.
  • Antacids containing aluminium or magnesium or calcium
    Antacids containing aluminium can bind with the phosphorus and interfere with its absorption. Antacids containing magnesium or calcium lower the blood levels of phosphorus, especially in longer-term use of this medication.
  • Captopril
    Captopril, a medication used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure, may raise the blood levels of potassium too high and cause a condition called hyperkalaemia, which can have very serious and adverse health implications.
  • Corticosteroids, Cortisone drugs or ACTH
    Cortisone drugs and Corticosteroids are anti-inflammatory medications which are used in a number of illnesses, but which can cause a reduction in the phosphorus levels and precipitate secondary hyperparathyroidism. ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone) is a naturally occurring hormone which is secreted by the pituitary gland to stimulate the adrenal glands to produce their hormones. When synthetic ACTH is administered it can cause a reduction in the phosphorus levels and precipitate secondary hyperparathyroidism. Both cortisone and ACTH can cause an elevation of blood sodium levels, especially in longer-term use of this medication.
  • Digitalis preparations
    Digitalis preparations are used for people with heart disease, but this medication may raise the blood levels of potassium too high and cause a condition called hyperkalaemia, which can have very serious and adverse health implications, especially in longer-term use of this medication.
  • Dilantin
    Dilantin (also known as Phenytoin) is an anti-epileptic drug used to control seizures. Usage of Dilantin may cause a decreased absorption of phosphorus, especially in longer-term use of this medication.
  • Enalapril
    Enalapril, a medication used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure, may raise the blood levels of potassium too high and cause a condition called hyperkalaemia, which can have very serious and adverse health implications.
  • Iron supplements
    Iron supplements should be taken at least 2 hours before or after taking phosphorus supplements because the phosphorus can interfere with and reduce the absorption of the iron supplements.
  • Salicylates
    Salicylates are naturally-occuring substances found in many foods, but are also used as food additives and can cause allergic reactions in some people. If phosphorus supplements are taken at the same time as foods high in salicylates, it may cause the blood levels of the salicylates to be elevated, which could cause more allergic problems in salicylate-sensitive people.
  • Testosterone
    Testosterone is a naturally occurring steroid sex hormone, but which can be taken in supplement form too. If phosphorus supplements are taken at the same time as testosterone, it can cause an imbalance of the electrolytes (phosphorus is one of them, the others are calcium, chloride, potassium and sodium), which can increase the risk of severe fluid retention (oedema).

Interactions with medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to have a beneficial reaction with phosphorus supplements:

  • Calcium
    A ratio of 2:1 in the diet between phosphorus and calcium can cause low blood calcium levels.
  • Vitamin D
    Vitamin D is sometimes given with phosphorus supplements (together with boron, magnesium and calcium) to aid in bone strength and increase mineralisation of bone. While vitamin D is excellent for this function as it helps with phosphorus absorption, but if supplemental levels of both vitamin D and phosphorus are too high, this can result in too much phosphorus in the blood and cells of the body, which can cause an electrolyte imbalance

Other interactions with phosphorus

  • Alcohol
    Alcohol actually decreases the amount of phosphorus available for use in the body – it causes the phosphorus taken in through the diet or supplements to be less available for the various metabolic processes it is required to participate.
  • Salt substitutes
    Salt substitutes also contain high levels of potassium which may lower phosphorus levels if used long-term (chronically).

Phosphorus’ effect on lab tests

There are none reported.

References

References

  • Altintas DU, Karakoc GB, Can S, Yilmaz M, Kendirli SG. The effects of long term use of inhaled corticosteroids on linear growth, adrenal function and bone mineral density in children. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2005 Jul-Aug;33(4):204-9
  • Casez JP, Lippuner K, Horber FF, Montandon A, Jaeger P. Changes in bone mineral density over 18 months following kidney transplantation: the respective roles of prednisone and parathyroid hormone. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2002 Jul;17(7):1318-26. http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/7/1318, accessed 2 November 2007
  • Epocrates Online – Drug and Supplement Interactions. https://www.epocrates.com. Accessed 10 December 2007
  • Gagnon L, Boulet LP, Brown J, Desrosiers T. Influence of inhaled corticosteroids and dietary intake on bone density and metabolism in patients with moderate to severe asthma. J Am Diet Assoc. 1997 Dec;97(12):1401-6
  • Griffith HW. Minerals, Supplements and Vitamins – The Essential Guide. 2000 Fisher Books, USA
  • Lieberman S, Bruning N. The Real Vitamin and Mineral Book – Using Supplements for Optimal Health. 3rd Edition. Avery Publishing, New York, 2003
  • Lukert BP, Adams JS. Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in man. Effect of corticosteroids. Arch Intern Med. 1976 Nov;136(11):1249-53
  • National Kidney Foundation. Phosphorus and Your Diet. Accessed 5 May 2024
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. BioConcepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Palacios C. The role of nutrients in bone health, from A to Z. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2006;46(8):621-8
  • Paunier L. Effect of magnesium on phosphorus and calcium metabolism. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd. 1992 Sep;140(9 Suppl 1):S17-20
  • Pivnick EK, Kerr NC, Kaufman RA, Jones DP, Chesney RW. Rickets secondary to phosphate depletion. A sequela of antacid use in infancy. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1995 Feb;34(2):73-8
  • Rizos E, Alexandrides G, Elisaf MS. Severe hypophosphatemia in a patient with acute pancreatitis. JOP. 2000 Nov;1(4):204-7. http://www.joplink.net/prev/200011/case2.htm, accessed 2 November 2007
  • Serna, Juan and Bergwitz Clemens. Importance of Dietary Phosphorus for Bone Metabolism and Healthy Aging.  2020 Oct; 12(10): 3001.
  • Soothill R. The Choice Guide To Vitamins and MInerals. Choice Books, Australia 1996
  • Spencer H, Kramer L, Norris C, Osis D. Effect of small doses of aluminum-containing antacids on calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 1982 Jul;36(1):32-40. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/36/1/32, accessed 2 November 2007
  • Tsao SK, Baker M, Nightingale JM. High-output stoma after small-bowel resections for Crohn’s disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005 Dec;2(12):604-8. http://www.nature.com/ncpgasthep/journal/v2/n12/full/ncpgasthep0343.html, accessed 2 November 2007
  • University of Maryland Medical Centre – Phosphorus. http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/phosphorus-000974.htm#ixzz2PmsJnzAI
  • USDA National Nutrient Database – provides nutrient values for foods (accessed 5 January 2024)
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002
  • Yüksel H, Darcan S, Kabasakal C, Cura A, Mir S, Mavi E. Effect of enalapril on proteinuria, phosphaturia, and calciuria in insulin-dependent diabetes. Pediatr Nephrol. 1998 Oct;12(8):648-50.

Last updated: 6 May 2024

Molybdenum

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Molybdenum

Facts

Why molybdenum is good for you

Molybdenum is a trace mineral, which means the body only needs a very small amount of it to maintain good health.

Molybdenum assists the body by fighting nitrosamines, which are associated with cancer, may prevent cavities and may help to prevent anaemia. It is needed for normal cell function and nitrogen metabolism. With these qualities, there might be evidence of antioxidant properties in this nutrient.

Molybdenum is part of sulphite oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down sulphites. Sulphites are found in protein food as well as chemical preservatives in certain foods and drugs. Should your body not be able to break down these sulphites, toxic build-up results, and your body may react with an allergic reaction.

These allergic reactions can be respiratory problems such as asthma and others. Molybdenum is also part of xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase – both involved in the body’s production of genetic material and proteins. Xanthine oxidase also helps the body to oxidise purines and pyrimidines and produce uric acid, an important waste product.

Molybdenum is needed by the cells to enable them to function properly, by producing healthy DNA and RNA

Important molybdenum facts

Molybdenum:

  • along with copper interacts, shares or competes for common enzyme systems in the body
  • is needed for a number of enzymes to work properly
  • helps the amino acids containing sulphur – methionine and cysteine
  • is part of tooth enamel
  • helps to make uric acid, which is part of urine
  • is a component of three different enzymes, which is involved in the metabolism of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), iron as well as food into energy. These three enzymes are sulphite oxidase, xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase
  • can be depleted if there is an excess of copper, tungsten and sulphates
  • supplements can be depleted by heat and moisture change

Molybdenum works best with

Health

Molybdenum and health

  • Molybdenum eliminates uric acid
    Molybdenum is also an integral part of the enzymes xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase, both of which are involved in the production of genetic material and proteins in the body (DNA and RNA). Xanthine oxidase also helps the body to produce and eliminate uric acid, an important waste product. Uric acid is produced when proteins are metabolised and high uric acid levels are found in people with gout.
  • Molybdenum helps the body use nitrogen
    Molybdenum assists with the usage of nitrogen in the body, in particular by helping to remove nitrogen waste from the body through the formation of uric acid. Nitrogen levels can become higher when the body is undergoing a high amount of physical activity and it is released by the muscles (through their metabolic activity), but it needs to be removed as it can have toxic effects on the body.
  • Molybdenum is required for energy metabolism
    Molybdenum, through its function in a number of enzyme processes (via sulphite oxidase, xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase), is involved in the metabolism of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), iron, and also food into energy.
  • Molybdenum is needed for normal cell function
    Molybdenum is needed by the cells to enable them to function properly, by producing healthy DNA and RNA (through the enzyme processes), thus ensuring the cells are healthy.
  • Molybdenum has anti-carcinogenic properties
    Molybdenum has anti-carcinogenic properties because it helps the body by stopping nitrosamines from causing damage to the cells and causing cancer. Nitrosamines are produced  from nitrites and secondary amines, which often occur in the form of proteins.

Deficiency

Groups at risk of molybdenum deficiency

  • Diet consisting mainly of refined foods – if the diet consists of mainly refined foods, the RDIA of molybdenum will not be reached
  • People taking copper supplements – people that take copper supplements may be low on molybdenum, as copper can compete with and block molybdenum absorption

People in these groups at risk of deficiency should talk to a medical professional about molybdenum supplements before taking them.

Symptoms of molybdenum deficiency

Dietary molybdenum deficiency has never been observed in healthy people. If deficiency were to occur, the following are the molybdenum deficiency symptoms:

  • Elevated excretion of enzymes
  • Gout
  • Low uric acid levels
  • Mental disturbances
  • Susceptibility to sulphite toxicity

People who experience any of the symptoms above should seek the advice of their doctor.

Food sources

Molybdenum in food

The following foods all contain molybdenum:

Daily intake

Molybdenum recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		2mcg
3mcg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		17mcg
22mcg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		34mcg
43mcg
ADULTS19-50yrs45mcg
SENIORS51+yrs45mcg
PREGNANTall ages50mcg
LACTATINGall ages50mcg
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITlifestageageAMOUNT
INFANTS0-12mthsn/a*
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		300mcg (0.3mg)
600mcg (0.6mg)
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		1100mcg (1.1mg)
1700mcg (1.7mg)
ADULTS19-50yrs2000mcg (2.0mg)
SENIORS51+yrs2000mcg (2.0mg)
PREGNANT<18yrs
19-50yrs		1700mcg (1.7mg)
2000mcg (2.0mg)
LACTATING<18yrs
19-50yrs		1700mcg (1.7mg)
2000mcg (2.0mg)
Toxic Levels>2000mcg

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

* The tolerable upper limit for molybdenum for infants aged 0-12 months has not yet been determined due to a lack of data about the adverse effects in this age group. The only source of molybdenum intake should be from food (breast milk and/or baby formula).

Toxicity

Toxic levels of molybdenum

Molybdenum is toxic at doses greater than 2,000mcg (2mg). Severe molybdenum toxicity is rare and caused by environmental exposure or workplace exposure.

Acute molybdenum toxicity

Acute toxicity from taking too much in molybdenum supplements – over 2,000mcg (2mg) can cause the following symptoms:

  • Aching joints
  • Gout-like symptoms
  • Severe diarrhoea

Chronic molybdenum toxicity

Chronic toxicity of molybdenum from taking higher than the therapeutic dose of supplements for a long time can cause the following symptoms:

  • Anaemia
  • Copper deficiency
  • Depression
  • Gout
  • High uric acid levels

People who experience any of the above toxicity symptoms should discontinue their molybdenum supplements and see their doctor for advice. Overdosage and toxicity is more likely to occur from taking too many supplements, whereas dietary intake of molybdenum is highly unlikely to cause overdosage.

Other factors linked to high molybdenum levels

These can potentially elevate molybdenum levels:

  • Cigarette smoking
  • Hemodialysis
  • Intense physical activity
  • Impaired liver function
  • Impaired kidney function
  • Metal hip implants

Precautions

Precautions

Certain people should not take molybdenum supplements at all:

  • Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding

Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding are advised not to take molybdenum supplements, as the supplements have unknown effects on the unborn foetus and developing child once it is born.

Certain people should not take molybdenum supplements without first consulting their doctor for advice to ensure magnesium supplementation does not conflict adversely with their condition:

  • People that have high uric acid levels
  • People with a copper deficiency
  • People with gout
  • People with kidney or liver disease

Interactions

Interactions with medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause a reaction with molybdenum supplements:

  • Copper
    Copper is needed to ensure that there are correct and balanced levels of both copper and molybdenum in the body. If high levels of copper supplements are taken, then this can cause blood levels of molybdenum to decrease and may precipitate a deficiency if continued for too long.
  • Sulphur
    Increased intake of foods and supplements with high amounts of sulphur can cause a reduction in the blood levels of molybdenum and may precipitate a deficiency if continued for too long.

Molybdenum has no other known reactions with medications.

Other interactions with molybdenum

There are none reported.

Molybdenum’s effect on lab tests

Molybdenum has the following effect on lab tests:

  • Serum copper

Molybdenum supplements can cause a reduction in serum copper levels.

References

References

  • USDA National Nutrient Database – provides nutrient values for foods (accessed 5 January 2005)
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. Bio-Concepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002

Last updated: 6 May 2024

Selenium

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Selenium

Facts

Why selenium is good for you

  • Selenium is important for thyroid gland health
    It helps the thyroid gland work properly and reduces goitre (where the thyroid gland increases in size and stops working as effectively). Selenium is also required to prevent hypothyroidism, which affects not just the thyroid gland, but the whole body, which slows down due to they thyroid gland’s impact on metabolism in the body on a general level
  • Selenium works even better with the other antioxidants
    The antioxidant action of selenium is fortified when it is in the company of other antioxidants – vitamin E and perhaps also vitamin A. Several studies have shown the synergistic effect of these antioxidants when they are combined – selenium when combined with vitamin E has more potent antioxidant effects than just either alone (although both are really potent antioxidants, they are even more powerful when they are used together). The studies have shown that people who have died of cancer have been found to have lower blood levels of selenium, vitamin E and vitamin A, when compared to healthy (cancer-free) people.
  • Selenium has anti-ageing properties
    Selenium’s role as an antioxidant, fighting and neutralising the effects of free radicals protects the body cells from oxidative damage, including ageing of the cells. It also removes toxic minerals such as mercury, lead and cadmium from the body

Selenium is of one the two most important minerals for the thyroid gland, to ensure it is healthy and functioning properly

Important selenium facts

  • The thyroid gland contains the highest levels of selenium of any other tissue in the whole body
  • Selenium helps with alleviating menopausal symptoms in women
  • It helps men to produce healthy sperm
  • Tissue elasticity and pancreatic function is also dependent on this mineral
  • It is helpful in fighting infections since it stimulates increased antibody response to infections and promotes more energy in the body
  • Selenium is a potent antioxidant
  • People living in areas where the soil is poor in selenium, should pay attention to their selenium intake
  • Selenium supplements should contain methionine as it detoxifies excess amounts of selenium
  • Sodium selenate is also less toxic than sodium selenite
  • Selenium is very important for the health of the thyroid gland and the heart
  • The safest supplementation form of selenium is selenomethionine, which has a selenium molecule attached to a methionine molecule to create this compound. The methionine helps to detoxify any excess selenium (as selenium can cause toxic symptoms when it is taken in excess) and ensures that the selenium performs its duties effectively. Sodium selenate is another supplement form, which is less toxic than sodium selenite

Selenium works best with

Health

Selenium and health

  • Cancer – in studies with animals it has been shown that high (therapeutic) levels of selenium reduces cancer in animals. Geographic studies have shown that people who live in areas with low soil selenium and also have relatively low selenium intakes have higher cancer mortality rates. In one trial undertaken in an area of China, higher selenium intake showed a 35% reduction in cancers. Other studies, in other areas have confirmed this result
  • The heart
    Selenium’s antioxidant properties are helpful in making the blood less “sticky”, which is helpful in preventing heart attacks and strokes. Another study in Finland showed that people with low selenium blood levels were significantly more likely to die from heart disease. Other research has shown people with significant selenium deficiency – for example people receiving long term intravenous feeding and alcoholics with cirrhosis of the liver – suffer from heart problems that respond positively to selenium supplementation. Several studies have shown that selenium has a protective effect against the development of heart attack and especially dying from heart attack
  • The immune system
    Selenium deficiency has been associated with impaired function of the immune system. Good selenium levels stimulate the immune system into action to protect the body from viral or bacterial (or other pathogen) infection. Selenium’s role as a potent antioxidant helps the immune system fight and neutralise free radicals in the body
  • Viruses
    Some researchers have shown that in selenium-deficient animals a harmless virus can mutate into a virulent form capable of causing more severe ill health and death. This has also been followed up and confirmed by other studies
  • Selenium’s potent antioxidant properties
    Selenium is a potent antioxidant which stops the potentially damaging effects that can be caused by free radicals. Selenium does this by activating the antioxidant amino acid glutathione through to the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, which is the substance that helps protect the body cells from the damaging oxidisation effects of free radicals. Studies have shown when selenium has been supplemented it provides a protective antioxidant effect on the body, lessening the effects of many conditions that proliferate under oxidative stress, such as cancer, heart disease and viral illnesses. Other research shows that selenium helps to repair cells in the lungs, heart, thyroid and other tissues damaged by oxidative stress. Selenium’s antioxidant actions may help prevent the the two most common causes of impaired vision and blindness in older people, cataracts and macular degeneration, by fighting and neutralising free radicals that attribute to these conditions
  • Selenium detoxifies the body of heavy metals
    Many studies have shown that selenium helps to detoxify the body from heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic by protecting the body against the toxic effects of these heavy metals and enabling the liver to detoxify them safely and eliminate them from the body through the urine
  • Selenium promotes normal growth and development
    Selenium is combined with proteins to make selenoproteins, which are important antioxidant enzymes. One of these selenoproteins, Thioredoxin reductase also recycles lipoic acid and vitamin C, regulates the metabolism of vitamin K3 and acts to regulate normal cell growth, maintenance and development. Selenium also assists in the synthesis of protein for use in the growth and development of body tissues
  • Selenium has beneficial effects on diabetes
    Research shows that selenium not only restores normal glycaemic control but it also prevents or alleviates the adverse effects that diabetes has on cardiac, renal and platelet (clotting) function. This is a result of selenium’s effect on an enzyme that is involved in insulin signalling to the cells
  • Selenium may be linked to sperm quality and male fertility
    Research links low selenium levels to decreased sperm quality, which impacts male fertility adversely. The research shows that the link between low selenium, sperm quality and male fertility is GPX4, an enzyme which is essential to allow the production of the correct architecture of the mid portion of sperm, that which allows it to “swim” properly
  • Selenium has anti-inflammatory properties
    Studies show that selenium has potent anti-inflammatory properties. Inflammation causes a hormonal chemical called prostaglandin to be released. Selenium inhibit s the release of prostaglandin, which is why it could be useful for people with arthritis and other autoimmune diseases. Selenium’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions may be enhanced when combined with vitamin E

Future research

  • HIV/AIDS – there is evidence that selenium levels decrease as the disease progresses, even before malnutrition is presented. Several studies are underway and show some improvement in symptoms of people with HIV/AIDS with selenium supplement but do not decrease mortality or disease progression. More research is underway

People who wish to take an selenium supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

Deficiency

Selenium deficiency

According to a number of researchers, selenium deficiency could be more prevalent than previously thought, due to the depletion of selenium in soil (which is how foods rich in selenium obtain it). Some scientists believe that increasing selenium may be necessary to help combat a number of illness that a deficiency of selenium is associated with (cancer, cardiovascular disease). Reviews are currently underway to determine if selenium fortification is required, but results of these reviews are not yet completed.

Groups at risk of selenium deficiency

  • Men – men need more selenium than women as it is lost in the seminal fluid
  • Men of reproductive age – studies who that low selenium intake is associated with low sperm quality and thus with male fertility
  • Chronically ill patients – muscular weakness, muscle wasting, and cardiomyopathy (inflammation and damage to the heart muscle) have been noted in these patients. They may be deficient in selenium, because their illness could be depleting the body of this very potent anti-cancer, anti-viral antioxidant and may need supplementation
  • People with large sections of their small intestine removed – these people have impaired absorption of selenium and may need supplementation
  • People with severe gastrointestinal problems, such as Crohn’s disease – these people have impaired absorption of selenium and may need supplementation
  • People on specialised medical diets to treat metabolic disorders – people on these diets (ie one for as phenylketonuria – PKU), are often low in selenium due to the restrictions of their diet and may need supplementation
  • People on a severely calorie reduced diet – severe calorie restricted diets may not provide enough selenium-rich foods to reach their daily intake of selenium. This may cause deficiency not just in selenium, but also in many other nutrients.
  • People living in areas with selenium-depleted soil – could become deficient in selenium because the food they eat does not have enough selenium to reach their recommended daily intake. Severely selenium depleted soil may cause really severe selenium-deficiency disorders.

People in these groups at risk of deficiency should talk to a medical professional about selenium supplements before taking them.

Symptoms of selenium deficiency

Selenium deficiency occurs when there is less than 40mcg intake of selenium per day. Selenium deficiency is associated with problems with the thyroid gland. Some researchers believe that around 40% of the population is at risk of selenium deficiency.

Symptoms of selenium deficiency

  • Thyroid disorder (hypothyroidism)
  • Cardiomyopathy
  • Cognition problems with learning, remembering
  • Depressed mood
  • Frequent infections
  • Heart disease
  • High cholesterol levels
  • Liver damage
  • Muscle pain and degeneration
  • Premature ageing
  • Sterility (in males)

People who experience any of the symptoms above should seek the advice of their doctor about selenium supplementation.

Diseases caused by severe selenium deficiency

There are two main diseases that can occur with extreme selenium deficiency and both are very serious health conditions.

Keshan’s disease

This is a disease which affects the heart and it occurs mainly in selenium-deficient soils in certain regions of China. The acute form of Keshan’s disease is characterised by the sudden onset of cardiac insufficiency, while the chronic form results in moderate to severe heart enlargement with varying degrees of cardiac insufficiency. The incidence of Keshan disease is closely associated with very low dietary intakes of selenium and poor selenium nutritional status. Selenium supplementation has been found to protect people from developing Keshan disease but cannot reverse heart muscle damage once it occurs.

Kashin-Beck disease

Kashin-Beck disease is characterised by the degeneration of the articular cartilage between joints (osteoarthritis) and is associated with poor selenium status in areas of northern China, North Korea, and eastern Siberia. The disease affects children between the ages 5 and 13 years. Severe forms of the disease may result in joint deformities and dwarfism, due to degeneration of cartilage forming cells. Unlike Keshan disease, there is little evidence that improving selenium nutritional status prevents Kashin-Beck disease.

Food sources

Selenium in food

FOODAMOUNTselenium (mcg)
Crab meat85g40
Salmon85g40
Halibut85g40
Noodles, enriched1 cup35
Prawns (shrimp)85g34
Pork85g33
Brazil nuts30g (6-8 nuts)30
Chicken (light meat)85g20
Rice, brown1 cup19
Beef85g17
Whole wheat bread2 slices15
Milk1 cup5
Walnuts, black30g5

Daily intake

Selenium recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		15mcg
20mcg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		20mcg
30mcg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		40mcg
55mcg
ADULTS19-50yrs55mcg
SENIORS51+yrs55mcg
PREGNANTall ages60mcg
LACTATINGall ages70mcg
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITlifestageageAMOUNT
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		45mcg
60mcg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		90mcg
150mcg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		280mcg
400mcg
ADULTS19-50yrs400mcg
SENIORS51+yrs400mcg
PREGNANTall ages400mcg
LACTATINGall ages400mcg
Toxic Levels>1000mcg

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

Toxicity

Toxic levels of selenium

Selenium is toxic at doses greater than 2000mcg (or 2mg).

Overdosage and toxicity symptoms – acute

Acute toxicity of selenium occurs when far too much selenium from supplements are taken – over 2mg (or 2,000mcg).

  • Arthritis
  • Birth defects
  • Dermatitis
  • Dizziness
  • Fatigue
  • Garlic-smelling breath or body odour
  • Hair loss
  • Irritability
  • Irritated eyes
  • Metallic taste in mouth
  • Nausea and general upset stomach
  • Weakness
  • Yellow skin

Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should not take silica supplements due to the unknown effect on the unborn foetus and young infant

Overdosage and toxicity symptoms – chronic

Chronic toxicity of selenium from taking higher than the therapeutic dose of selenium supplements (more than 400mcg) for a long time can cause the following symptoms:

  • Brittle fingernails
  • Diarrhoea
  • Fatigue
  • Garlic odour breath
  • Irritated eyes
  • Metallic taste in the mouth
  • Mottled teeth
  • Skin dermatitis
  • Tingling sensation in hands and feet
  • Weakness
  • Yellow skin

People experiencing any of the above toxicity symptoms should discontinue their selenium supplements and seek medical advice. Overdosage and toxicity is more likely to occur from taking too many supplements, whereas dietary intake of selenium is highly unlikely to cause overdosage.

Precautions

Precautions

Selenium, especially in the form Selenomethionine is generally safe to take and there are no cautions with any groups of people. This is because the methionine in the selenomethionine detoxifies any of the potential toxicity of the selenium and makes it much safer to take than just plain selenium with another substance.

Interactions

Medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause a reaction with selenium supplements:

  • Chemotherapy medications (Cisplatin, Doxorubicin, Bleomycin)
    Selenium may inhibit the anti-cancer effects of the chemotherapy medication Bleomycin, thereby reducing its effectiveness. On the flip side, selenium may reduce the toxic side effects associated with the chemotherapy medications Cisplatin and Doxorubicin.
  • Cholesterol-lowering medications (Simvastatin)
    If cholesterol-lowering medications such as Simvastatin (which lower LDL (“bad”) cholesterol and raise HDL (“good”) cholesterol) are taken together with selenium supplements, the selenium prevents the HDL (“good”) cholesterol levels from being raise, thus inhibiting some of the effectiveness of the medication. This interactions occurs with cholesterol-lowing drugs and any antioxidant supplements.
  • Vitamin C and vitamin E
    Selenium enhances the antioxidant properties of both vitamin C and vitamin E, to further prevent oxidation in body tissues and damage from free radicals, so these supplements should be taken together.

Selenium has possible adverse interactions with chemotherapy medications and cholesterol-lowering medications

Other interactions with selenium

There are none reported.

Selenium’s effect on lab tests

There are none reported.

References

References

  • USDA National Nutrient Database – provides nutrient values for foods (accessed 5 January 2005)
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. Bio-Concepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002

Last updated: 5 May 2024

Zinc

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Zinc

Facts

Why zinc is good for you

  • Zinc is needed for proper growth and reproduction
    Zinc is especially required for the synthesis of DNA and RNA (the nucleic acids that exist in cells that assist with cell division, reproduction and repair). Many studies have shown that low zinc levels in pregnancy can be associated with a higher risk of complications such as miscarriage and birth defects.
  • Zinc is very important for children
    Zinc is a vital nutrient for children, as it helps them grow and develop normally, while low levels of zinc cause stunted and suboptimal growth, loss of taste, behavioural problems, lethargy and poor appetite (which further exacerbates the suboptimal growth and development in children).
  • Zinc is important for eye health
    The eyes have very high concentrations of zinc (especially the iris and retina). The eyes need adequate levels of zinc to maintain healthy eyesight. Zinc helps to activate vitamin A (a vitamin essential for eye health and which has high concentrations in the eye) in the eye and prevent conditions such as cataracts, optic neuritis, inflammation of the eye and impaired colour discrimination.
  • Zinc is required to make many hormones
    The body relies on zinc to help create many hormones, including hormones that control growth, the important male hormone testosterone and hormones that instruct the immune system on what action to take when the body is under attack from bacteria, fungi or viruses.
  • Zinc limits excessive prolactin levels
    Studies show that zinc limits the productions of the female hormone prolactin, which if too high, can cause secretion of breast milk in women who are not pregnant, enlarged breasts and sexual dysfunction. Studies show that zinc supplements reduce these problems when used in people with elevated prolactin levels.

There is some zinc in every one of the cells in the body, but most of it is in the skin, hair, nails and eyes (and in the prostate gland, for males).

Important zinc facts

  • Zinc is a trace mineral
    Zinc is a trace mineral, which means only very small amounts of this mineral are required to enable the proper functioning of the body and to enable good health. Zinc is the second most abundant trace mineral in the body.
  • Zinc is needed to enable over 200 enzymes to work properly
    Over 200 important enzymes in the body rely largely on sufficient levels of zinc to activate them and enable them to function correctly.
  • Zinc is part of superoxide dismutase
    The body produces its own natural antioxidant, superoxide dismutase (SOD), to neutralise any free radicals that may occur through any natural oxidative processes in the body. Zinc is an essential part of the SOD molecule and helps this antioxidant perform its duties more effectively.
  • Long term zinc supplements should be taken with copper
    People who take zinc supplements over the longer term, should also be taking copper supplements too, as high levels of zinc can cause a decrease in the blood levels of copper and decrease the absorption of any copper in the blood. These two minerals need to be taken together so that blood levels of both remain in a healthy range.
  • Zinc is an antioxidant
    Zinc is an antioxidant, which means that it protects the body from oxidative damage caused by free radicals. Oxidative damage from environmental toxins (such as ultraviolet light, radiation, cigarette smoking and air pollution) can cause premature ageing, damage to the DNA of cells and damage to cells and body tissues; it can even allow conditions such as heart disease and cancer to manifest through the various body systems. Zinc antioxidant properties also helps to stabilise the cell membranes and protects the cells DNA and RNA through its antioxidant properties.
  • Zinc ensures taste and smell are normal
    Interestingly, zinc works to ensure that the two senses – taste and smell – are normal. Zinc’s importance in body system that go through a rapid amount of cells are especially reliant on zinc (such as the taste buds in the tongue and the olfactory nerves in the nose) and need it to stay healthy.
  • Zinc protects against damage from toxic substances
    Zinc has a known effect on detoxifying the body from the toxic effects of a number of poisonous substances, by protecting the liver through the detoxification and elimination process in the liver. Zinc protects the body against damage from many environmental toxins such as carbon tetrachloride (a cleaning solvent), lead (in old paint, pollution and leaded petrol) and cadmium (in exhaust fumes, drinking water and pollution).
  • Zinc exists in all cells of the body
    There is some zinc in all the cells of the body, but it is especially concentrated in the skin, hair, nails and eyes (and in the prostate gland in men).
  • Zinc is available in various supplement forms
    There are a number of forms of zinc supplements. Zinc sulfate is the most frequently used supplement but it is not very well absorbed and can cause stomach upset. Better forms of zinc include: zinc picolinate, zinc citrate, zinc acetate, zinc glycerate, zinc gluconate and zinc monomethionine. The form of zinc that is the best and most absorbed is zinc gluconate.

Zinc works best with

Health

Zinc and health

  • Zinc is important for a healthy immune system
    Zinc is vitally important for a healthy immune system, as it helps to create healthy white blood cells, helps to create the antibodies (which provide immunity to a number of pathogens) and provides a protective and enhancing effect on the immune system as a whole. It seems to give a real boost to the thymus gland, especially in people over 40. By then, the thymus gland may have naturally shrunk quite a bit, so its not producing the hormones that stimulate the body to produce infection-fighting white blood cells it used to. Getting a little extra zinc may get the thymus working better again and help fight off illness faster. Studies show that people who have lower than optimal zinc levels, often experience more frequent infections which are of a longer duration. Other studies on both animals and humans have shown that people (or animals) with low zinc levels experience abnormalities and shrinking of the spleen, thymus and lymph nodes (which are all involved in immunity) as well as a decreased production amount of the antibodies and T cells. Other research has shown that people with lowered zinc levels (especially if accompanied with high copper levels) are associated with many types of cancers and in fact if people with lung cancer have a higher blood levels of zinc, they tend to have a longer survival rate.
  • Zinc helps the body fight off colds and flu
    Many studies have shown that zinc helps the body fight fight the effects of colds and flu more quickly and lessens the effects and duration of any viral or bacterial infection that does progress into a cold or flu. Zinc helps to reduce the symptoms of a cold or flu, such as a runny nose, coughing and sore throat. The best way to get the most out of zinc is to start taking it at the first sign of a cold or flu (such as slightly sore throat, sneezing), before it takes hold and develops more debilitating symptoms, when the infection can be a lot harder to stop. Zinc lozenges are a great way to take zinc, as they can relieve the upper respiratory symptoms quite well. Zinc lozenges are usually in the form of zinc gluconate and should be taken as directed on the packet.
  • Zinc is important for prostate gland health
    Zinc is required for a healthy prostate gland, which naturally contains very high levels of zinc. Low levels of zinc in the prostate gland generally signify that the prostate gland is unhealthy and not functioning properly. Studies show that men who have benign prostatic hyperplasia (non-cancerous prostate condition where the prostate enlarges), find significant relief from the symptoms of this condition (the prostate size decreases) if they are given zinc supplements. Research also shows that zinc stops certain male hormones from attaching to cells in the prostate gland and reducing the risk of prostate cancer and other diseases of the prostate gland.
  • Zinc is important for male fertility
    Men need zinc to produce testosterone and other male hormones, as well as healthy sperm and semen, so more zinc in the diet could help solve male infertility. Many studies have shown that zinc is very vital for healthy male fertility, although the researchers have suggested that the mechanism of the actual activity of zinc is not clear, there is a definite link between blood levels of zinc and fertility. Studies show that low levels of zinc in men are linked to lower levels of sperm and lower quality of sperm, while high healthy levels of zinc are linked to normal and healthy sperm. In one study, men with low sperm counts took zinc supplements for 6 weeks after which their testosterone and sperm counts went up and nearly half of them had pregnant wives before the study was over
  • Zinc helps the body heal wounds quickly
    Zinc is needed to help the body recover from any type of wound or injury (even surgery) because it helps to stimulate the healing process. When there is injury to the body, all the stores of zinc are used to help with the healing of the wound and more is needed to make sure healing occurs quickly as quite a lot of the zinc in the body can be lost when the body is injured.
  • Zinc is important for healthy skin, hair and nails
    Zinc is especially vital for the health of skin, hair and nails. Studies show that low zinc levels can be attributed to minor skin rashes and irritations that clear up once zinc has been supplemented. These often clear up when patients start eating a diet higher in zinc or take zinc supplements. Zinc also helps to clear up psoriasis on the skin. If there is a major zinc deficiency, it presents as white spots on the fingernails or nails that are weak and break easily. Supplementation with zinc or adding more foods high in zinc can help to alleviate deficiency and resolve the nail health problems.
  • Healing wounds – zinc is essential for healing wounds. Several studies show that patients recover from surgery faster if they get enough zinc. The effect is dramatic if the patient was low on zinc to begin with – it did not seem to work as well on patients who had good zinc levels prior to surgery. People who are scheduled for surgery should talk to their doctor about taking zinc supplements for a few weeks before and after the surgery
  • Zinc is important for a healthy thymus gland
    Zinc is important in the health of the thymus gland, which is where the special white blood cells that fight infection are sent from the bone marrow (where they are created) to mature and enable their infection fighting abilities. These special white blood cells that are sent to the thymus gland are called T lymphocytes (or T cells) and they carry out the immune response in reaction to an invading pathogen (bacteria, fungi, virus) to prevent it from causing infection and illness and the T cells have a lot of zinc inside them.
  • Zinc is needed for a healthy pancreas
    Zinc is necessary for the health of the pancreas, as it forms part of essential coenzyme constituents which enable the pancreas to function properly when it releases the hormones insulin or glucagon.

People who wish to take a zinc supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

Current research

  • Diabetes – some diabetics may be low on zinc because they do not absorb it well and also excrete it too quickly. Zinc supplements could help. Zinc might also help with the other problems diabetics often have – slow wound healing and frequent infections
  • Macular degeneration – this serious eye problem is the leading cause of blindness in the elderly. The eyes naturally contain a lot of zinc and a lot of it is concentrated in the retina, the part of your eye affected by macular degeneration. Zinc supplements could help prevent or slow down vision loss from macular degeneration
  • Memory – people who get the recommended daily intake of zinc do better on memory tests than those who do not

People who wish to take a zinc supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

Deficiency

Groups at risk of zinc deficiency

Almost a century ago in Egypt, doctors noticed that poor, young boys who ate almost nothing but unleavened bread were very short and underdeveloped. It turned out that their diets had very little zinc. Once they started getting more zinc in their diet, they started growing normally again.

In modern society, such a serious zinc deficiency is very rare, although a slight zinc deficiency is quite common. Surveys show that many women only get about half the RDA. The groups at most at risk of zinc deficiency are:

  • Strict vegetarians or vegans – animal foods such as meat and fish are the best dietary sources of zinc. Fruits have virtually none. Children who do not eat animal foods are most at risk for zinc deficiency
  • People eating a very high fibre diet – the fibre, especially from whole grains, binds up the zinc in the diet and keeps it from being absorbed
  • Pregnant or breastfeeding mothers – much of the nutrients eaten are passed onto the child and extra may be needed each day to top up supplies of zinc
  • People over 50 years – the ability to absorb zinc from food drops as we age
  • People who abuse alcohol – alcohol abusers do not eat very well in general and even moderate amounts of alcohol flush out the zinc stored in your liver and make you excrete it.
  • People taking oral contraceptives – oral contraceptives can lower blood levels of zinc, so women who take this type of contraceptive medication should have their zinc levels tested for deficiency
  • People taking penicillamine – this drug is used to treat Wilson’s disease (excessive levels of copper in the body) and rheumatoid arthritis, decreases zinc levels, so supplementation may be required
  • Diuretics – these medications can cause low blood levels of zinc as a side effect, so zinc supplementation may be required to avoid zinc deficiency
  • ACE inhibitors – such as captopril and enalpril may cause low blood levels of zinc as a side effect, so zinc supplementation may be required to avoid zinc deficiency

People in these groups at risk of deficiency should talk to a medical professional about zinc supplements before taking them.

Symptoms of zinc deficiency

Zinc deficiency has a number of symptoms such as:

  • slowed growth in children
  • slow wound healing
  • frequent infections
  • skin irritation
  • hair loss
  • loss of sense of taste

Generally speaking, most people do not have to worry much about being deficient in this mineral. Anyone who eats a reasonably well-balanced diet will get plenty of zinc, but some people are more prone to being deficient and should seek medical advice about supplementation.

Food sources

Zinc in food

FOODAMOUNTZINC (mg)
Oysters, smoked85g103.0
Oysters, canned85g77.3
Oysters, raw6 medium76.4
Beef liver85g5.2
Beef, minced85g4.6
Wheatgerm1/4 cup3.6
Chickpeas1 cup2.5
Lentils1 cup2.5
White beans1 cup2.5
Chicken without skin85g2.1
Yoghurt1 cup2.0
Black beans1 cup1.9
Kidney beans1 cup1.9
Lima beans1 cup1.8
Turkey85g1.7
Cashews, dry roasted28g1.6
Pecans28g1.6
Almonds, dry roasted28g1.4
Sunflower seeds28g1.4
Oatmeal1 cup1.1
Swiss cheese28g1.1
Milk 1% fat1 cup1.0
Cheddar cheese28g0.9
Split peas1/2 cup0.9
Peanut butter2 Tbsp0.9
Peanuts28g0.9
Walnuts28g0.8
Eggs1 large0.5
Flounder85g0.5
Wholewheat bread1 slice0.4

 

Daily intake

Zinc recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		2mg
3mg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		3mg
5mg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
male: 14-18yrs
female: 14-18yrs		8mg
11mg
9mg
ADULTSmale: 19-50yrs
female: 19-50yrs		11mg
8mg
SENIORSmale: 51+yrs
female: 51+yrs		11mg
8mg
PREGNANT<18yrs
19-50yrs		13mg
11mg
LACTATING<18yrs
19-50yrs		14mg
12mg
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		4mg
5mg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		7mg
12mg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		23mg
34mg
ADULTS19-50yrs40mg
SENIORS51+yrs40mg
PREGNANT<18yrs
19-50yrs		34mg
40mg
LACTATING<18yrs
19-50yrs		34mg
40mg

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

Toxicity

Toxic levels of zinc

Zinc is toxic at doses greater than 1000mg per day, but can produce some toxicity symptoms such as nausea and vomiting at levels higher than 150mg per day.

Overdosage and toxicity symptoms – acute

Acute toxicity from taking too much in zinc supplements – over 1000mg can cause the following symptoms:

  • Abdominal pain
  • Abnormal intestinal bleeding
  • Gastric ulceration

Overdosage and toxicity symptoms – chronic

Chronic toxicity of zinc from taking higher than the therapeutic dose of supplements (over 150mg) for a long time can cause the following symptoms:

  • Diarrhoea
  • Nausea
  • Vomiting

Precautions

Precautions

Certain people should consult their doctor before taking zinc supplements:

  • People taking certain medications – the zinc will keep the medications from being absorbed into the bloodstream and reduce its effectiveness or the medication may increate blood levels of zinc which can be toxic
  • People with severe stomach or duodenal ulcers – may have an exacerbation of their gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and abdominal bleeding
  • Women who are pregnant – high levels of zinc should not be taken as they can cause premature labour or stillbirth. Consult your doctor about suitable supplemental levels of zinc to prevent any adverse effects on the growing foetus
  • People taking any type of medication – always consult your doctor before adding any supplements to your regime, as there can be serious interactions

Interactions

Interactions with medications and supplements – adverse

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause an adverse reaction with zinc supplements:

  • Antibiotics
    Antibiotics should not be taken at the same time as zinc supplements as the zinc can decrease the absorption of the antibiotics and inactive some of their effectiveness. It is advisable to take zinc at least 2 hours before or after the intake of the antibiotic. It’s preferable to not take the zinc supplements at all until the course of the antibiotic is completed.
  • Blood pressure medications
    Blood pressure medications may cause low blood levels of zinc as a side effect, so zinc supplementation may be required to avoid zinc deficiency
  • Calcium
    Zinc supplements can interfere with the absorption of calcium from foods or supplements, especially if the zinc supplements are at very high levels. If calcium supplements need to be taken, it may be advisable to omit the high zinc supplements and take lower levels
  • Copper
    Zinc supplements can decrease the absorption of copper from foods or supplements, especially if the zinc supplements are at high levels. High or long-term levels of zinc supplements must be taken with a copper supplement to prevent deficiency of copper and the adverse health effects associated with it
  • Cortisone medications
    Cortisone medications could cause any lab tests measuring zinc levels to be inaccurate. Cortisone medications should be stopped before measuring zinc levels, but only under medical supervision, as the dose of the cortisone has to be tapered off gradually – this medication cannot be stopped suddenly as it can cause very severe side effects if this happens
  • Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)
    Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) drugs, which are a combination of synthetic oestrogen and progesterone for women that are menopausal, may reduce zinc excretion and cause higher than normal levels of zinc in the body. Zinc supplements should not be taken by women on HRT medications
  • Hydralazine
    Hydralazine medication is used to treat high blood pressure. There has been at least one report of an interaction between zinc and hydralazine which resulted in a lupus-erythematosus-like syndrome (characterized by a facial butterfly rash, fever, leg and mouth ulcers, and abdominal distress)
  • Iron
    If zinc supplements are taken at the same time as iron supplements, the zinc may decrease the body’s ability to absorb the iron, especially if the zinc supplements are at very high levels
  • Immunosuppressant medications
    Immunosuppressant medications such as corticosteroids and cyclosporine should not be taken with zinc supplements, as zinc has immune enhancing effects and the immunosuppressant medications are used to suppress immunity. Avoid zinc supplements if taking these types of medications
  • Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
    NSAIDs such as ibuprofen can have reduced absorption and effectiveness if zinc supplements are taken at the same time. It is advisable to avoid taking zinc if taking NSAIDs
  • Penicillin
    Penicillin, an antibiotic should not be taken at the same time as zinc supplements as the zinc can decrease the absorption of penicillin and inactive some of its effectiveness. It is advisable to take zinc at least 2 hours before or after the intake of penicillin. It is better to not take the zinc supplements at all until the course of penicillin is completed
  • Progesterone
    Progesterone may reduce zinc excretion and cause higher than normal levels of zinc in the body. Zinc supplements should not be taken by women taking progesterone
  • Steroids
    Steroids could cause any lab tests measuring zinc levels to be inaccurate. Steroids should be stopped at least three days before taking a blood test to measure zinc levels
  • Tetracycline
    If zinc supplements are taken at the same times as Tetracycline, an antibiotic, the zinc may decrease the amount of the Tetracycline that is absorbed and negate some of the effectiveness of the medication. If possible, take the course of Tetracycline medication without taking zinc supplements, but the zinc needs to be taken, then it should be taken at least 2 hours before or after the Tetracycline to reduce the effects of interaction

References

References

  • Ali H, Baig M, Rana MF, Ali M, Qasim R, Khem AK. Relationship of serum and seminal plasma zinc levels and serum testosterone in oligospermic and azoospermic infertile men. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2005 Nov;15(11):671-3
  • Desouki MM, Geradts J, Milon B, Franklin RB, Costello LC. hZip2 and hZip3 zinc transporters are down regulated in human prostate adenocarcinomatous glands. Mol Cancer. 2007 Jun 5;6:37
  • Ebisch IM, Pierik FH, DE Jong FH, Thomas CM, Steegers-Theunissen RP. Does folic acid and zinc sulphate intervention affect endocrine parameters and sperm characteristics in men? Int J Androl. 2006 Apr;29(2):339-45
  • Gómez Y, Arocha F, Espinoza F, Fernández D, Vásquez A, Granadillo V. Zinc levels in prostatic fluid of patients with prostate pathologies. Invest Clin. 2007 Sep;48(3):287-94
  • Li TX, Li Y. Synergistic effect of zinc and vitamin A on T cell functions. Biomed Environ Sci. 2007 Apr;20(2):131-4
  • Mitchell WA, Meng I, Nicholson SA, Aspinall R. Thymic output, ageing and zinc. Biogerontology. 2006 Oct-Dec;7(5-6):461-70
  • Mocchegiani E. Zinc and ageing: third ZincAge conference. Immun Ageing. 2007 Sep 20;4(1):5
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. Bio-Concepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Tubek S. Selected zinc metabolism parameters in women with arterial hypotension. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2007 Apr;116(1):73-9.
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002
  • Xi H, Kersh GJ. Early growth response gene 3 regulates thymocyte proliferation during the transition from CD4-CD8- to CD4+CD8+. J Immunol. 2004 Jan 15;172(2):964-71, accessed 27 Sep 07

Last updated: 5 May 2024

Manganese

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Manganese

Facts

Why manganese is good for you

Manganese is a trace mineral, which means the body only needs a very small amount of it to be healthy.

Manganese plays an important role in a number of physiological processes as a constituent of some enzymes and an activator of other enzymes. Manganese-activated enzymes play important roles in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol.

Manganese enables the body to utilize vitamin C, Vitamin B1 (thiamin) , vitamin H (biotin) as well as choline. It is used in the manufacture of fat, sex hormones and breast milk in females.

Manganese is also necessary for healthy bone and cartilage development as well as wound healing.

Manganese is thought to also help neutralise free radicals as well as being of assistance in preventing diabetes and it is also needed for normal nerve function.

Important manganese facts

  • Manganese is lost in milling and its absorption is decreased in the presence of large amounts of calcium, phosphorous, zinc, cobalt and soy protein.
  • Manganese is depleted in the soil by extensive use of chemical fertilizers or too much lime, and food grown in such soil will have a low manganese content
  • Manganese works with Vitamin K to promote blood clotting

Deficiency

Groups at risk of manganese deficiency

  • Pregnant or breastfeeding mothers – much of the nutrients eaten are passed onto the child and extra may be needed each day to top up supplies of manganese

People in these groups at risk of deficiency should talk to a medical professional about manganese supplements before taking them.

Symptoms of manganese deficiency

Manganese is not easily absorbed but since very small amounts are needed, deficiency is rare.

Deficiencies symptoms include:

  • poor bone growth
  • birth defects and reduced fertility
  • problems with blood glucose levels

Serious deficiency in children can result in paralysis, deafness and blindness.

Health

Manganese and health

  • Osteoporosis – women with osteoporosis have been found to have decreased blood levels of manganese. A 2-year study of healthy postmenopausal women found that a supplement containing manganese, copper and zinc, in combination with calcium, was more effective than just a calcium supplement alone in preventing spinal bone loss over a period of 2 years. More research needs to be undertaken in this area to determine how effective manganese is for osteoporosis
  • Diabetes – manganese deficiency resulted in glucose intolerance similar to diabetes in some studies. Although manganese appears to play a role in glucose metabolism, there is little evidence in studies conducted so far, that manganese supplementation improves glucose tolerance in diabetic or non-diabetic individuals
  • Epilepsy – certain subgroups of people with epilepsy have been found to have lower blood manganese levels than non-epileptic people. One study found blood manganese levels of individuals with epilepsy of unknown origin to be lower than those of individuals whose epilepsy was induced by trauma (e.g., head injury) or disease, suggesting a possible relationship between epilepsy and abnormal manganese metabolism. Further research needs to be undertaken to determine the role manganese plays in epilepsy

People who wish to take a manganese supplement should talk to a medical professional before taking it.

Food sources

Manganese in food

FOODAMOUNTManganese (mg)
Raisin bran cereal1 cup1.88
Pineapple, raw, diced½ cup1.28
Pineapple juice½ cup1.24
Instant oatmeal (made with water)1 packet1.20
Pecans30g1.12
Brown rice, cooked½ cup0.88
Almonds30g0.74
Whole wheat bread1 slice0.65
Peanuts30g0.59
Sweet potato, cooked½ cup0.55
Navy beans, cooked½ cup0.51
Pinto beans, cooked½ cup0.48
Lima beans, cooked½ cup0.48
Tea (green)1 cup0.41-1.58
Tea (black)1 cup0.18-0.77

 

Daily intake

Manganese recommended daily intake (RDI)

RDAlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-6mths
7-12mths		0.003mg
0.6mg
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		1.2mg
1.5mg
CHILDREN – MALE9-13yrs
14-18yrs		1.9mg
2.2mg
CHILDREN – FEMALE9-13yrs
14-18yrs		1.6mg
1.6mg
ADULTSmale: 19-50yrs
female: 19-50yrs		2.3mg
1.8mg
SENIORSmale: 51+yrs
female: 51+yrs		2.3mg
1.8mg
PREGNANTall ages2.0mg
LACTATINGall ages2.6mg
TOLERABLE UPPER LIMITlifestageageamount
INFANTS0-12mthsn/a*
CHILDREN1-3yrs
4-8yrs		2mg
3mg
CHILDREN9-13yrs
14-18yrs		6mg
9mg
ADULTS19-50yrs11mg
SENIORS51+yrs11mg
PREGNANT<18yrs
19-50yrs		9mg
11mg
LACTATING<18yrs
19-50yrs		9mg
11mg
Toxic Levels>50mg (for long periods)

The tolerable upper limits should only be taken for short periods and only under medical supervision.

* The tolerable upper limit for manganese for infants aged 0-12 months has not yet been determined due to a lack of data about the adverse effects in this age group. The only source of manganese intake should be from food (breast milk and/or baby formula).

Manganese works best with

Toxicity

Acute manganese toxicity

Toxicity of manganese by diet is rare. Miners who are exposed to high levels of manganese (which they may inhale), can get “manganese madness”.

Acute toxicity from taking too many manganese supplements – over 1000mg can cause the following symptoms:

  • Breathing problems *
  • Impotence
  • Muscle fatigue
  • Weight loss

* People who experience the highlighted symptoms should seek immediate emergency treatment.

Chronic manganese toxicity

Chronic toxicity of manganese from taking higher than the therapeutic dose of supplements for a long time can cause the following symptoms:

  • Anaemia (lowered iron levels)
  • Confusion
  • Delusions
  • Dementia
  • Depression
  • Hallucinations
  • Headaches
  • High blood pressure
  • Impotence
  • Inflammation of the kidneys
  • Insomnia
  • Liver cirrhosis
  • Memory problems
  • Muscle fatigue
  • Parkinson’s disease (Parkinson-like symptoms) *
  • Slurred speech
  • Tremors

People who experience any of the above toxicity symptoms should discontinue their manganese supplements and see their doctor for advice.

Overdosage and toxicity is more likely to occur from taking too many supplements, whereas dietary intake of manganese is highly unlikely to cause overdosage.

* Parkinson’s disease is a health condition in which high levels of manganese (as well as other minerals) could be an underlying component in its development.

Precautions

Precautions

There are some individuals who have increased susceptibility to manganese toxicity:

  • People with chronic liver disease – manganese is eliminated from the body mainly in bile. Impaired liver function may lead to decreased manganese excretion. Manganese accumulation in people with cirrhosis or liver failure may contribute to neurological problems and Parkinson’s disease-like symptoms.
  • Newborns – the newborn brain may be more susceptible to manganese toxicity due the developing nerve cells and the immaturity of the liver’s bile elimination system. Do not use manganese supplements for newborns.

Interactions

Manganese interactions with medications and supplements

The following are the medications and supplements that are more likely to cause a reaction with manganese supplements:

  • Calcium
    Calcium, either from foods rich in calcium or supplements may decrease the absorption of any manganese supplements taken at the same time, especially if the calcium is taken in larger doses.
  • Iron
    Manganese supplements, especially if they are very high levels, seem to interfere with iron absorption and can lead to iron-deficiency anaemia, irrespective of whether the iron is from food or supplements.
  • Magnesium
    Magnesium, either from foods rich in magnesium or supplements may decrease the absorption of any manganese supplements taken at the same time, especially if the magnesium is taken in larger doses.
  • Phosphorus
    Phosphorus, either from foods rich in phosphorus or supplements may decrease the absorption of any manganese supplements taken at the same time, especially if the phosphorus is taken in larger doses.
  • Oral contraceptives
    The oral contraceptive decreases blood manganese levels, even if manganese supplements (at recommended levels) are used.

Other interactions with manganese

There are none reported.

Manganese’s effect on lab tests

Manganese can have the following effect on lab tests:

  • Serum iron levels

Excess manganese intake may decrease serum iron levels.

References

References

  • USDA National Nutrient Database – provides nutrient values for foods (accessed 5 January 2005)
  • Osiecki, H. The Nutrient Bible. Bio-Concepts Publishing QLD, 2002
  • Whitney EN, Cataldo DB, Rolfes SR. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition, 6th Edition. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002

Last updated: 6 May 2024

Build self confidence

Gini Grey
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0
Build self confidence

Question

I believe we have the power to heal ourselves and others. And I know I’m a spiritual being and I’ve experienced some unexplainable things in my life, both bad and good.

But when I have tried to convince family members of my beliefs, they think of me as silly or foolish and consider me to be an embarrassment, which I know I am not.

How do I rid myself of their negativity towards me?

Answer

Doesn’t it feel great to be aware of yourself as a spiritual being! I find it very empowering. I can relate to the situation with your family. I’ve found over the years that I only share what I sense my family can understand and appreciate. I know it’s difficult to not share everything about yourself and not be “seen” by your family. And it’s painful to think that your family views you as an embarrassment. Know deep in your heart that they are coming from fear as they don’t know themselves as spiritual beings the way you do. Hearing about things that are beyond their conscious experience may trigger their ego fear and judgment response – but you don’t have to take it personally. It says more about them than it does about you.

If you can have compassion for them (think of what they are missing out on not realising they are powerful spiritual beings) and know that they are on their own journey (and will one day or one life-time become conscious of this, but it is their process – not up to others to convince them), this will help you to release their negativity. As you say hello to the spirit in them and rise above their ego comments, this will help support your connection to them. Love, compassion and forgiveness are all self-healing tools.

I also find amusement very helpful. If you can stay centred within your higher, bigger, spiritual self where you are at ease and amused, you will slough off your family’s comments and negativity. Like attracts like so over time you will attract like minded people who know and appreciate what you are experiencing. In the meantime, try to find common ground with your family so you can enjoy your time with them (and you may find you spend less time with them once you have created more connections with spiritually minded people).

Always feeling depressed

Gini Grey
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0
Always feeling depressed

Question

Why do I always feel depressed like there is something missing in my life?

What can I do to make myself feel better?

Answer

It’s hard for me to know exactly why you feel depressed without knowing more about your situation, but you did mention that you feel like something’s missing and that could be an important aspect of it.

Feeling depressed can happen for many reasons. People who experience a number of symptoms of depression for more than 3 weeks may be considered clinically depressed and require treatment from a doctor, counsellor or alternative health practitioner. When people are clinically depressed they have lower levels of serotonin in their brain and as they find ways to raise these levels (through medication, herbal remedies, exercise, cognitive therapy, acupuncture, energy healing and so on) they feel better.

But in your case, it sounds like this isn’t just a biochemical imbalance, but that something is calling to you. Have you experienced any form of loss lately, as depression is a natural part of the grieving process? Loss of a loved one, loss of a job, relationship or any form of change that incurs loss may trigger feelings of depression for a while.

Is your heart and soul longing for a change? Sometimes depression is a lack of passion or inspiration. What would you love to do in your life if time, money and others weren’t an issue? See if you can find ways to honor these longings in a healthy way.

Are you expressing your creativity? Depression can also be a smothering or repression of creative expression. Perhaps writing, drawing, painting, dancing or some other form of creative expression might help (and you don’t have to be an artist, it’s about the process not the outcome of the creativity that counts here).

Are you in touch with your emotions. Repressed anger can sometimes feel like depression. Get in touch with the emotions that underlie your feelings of depression. If there is sadness, touch into it and allow it to communicate to you. If there is anger, feel it and process it in a way that feels healthy to you (writing about it, using paint or crayons to express anger, or talking to a friend or counsellor can help).

Do you have a spiritual practice? If you feel like something is missing, it may be a connection to your spiritual self or the God of your heart. Meditation and prayer can be a way to discover who you are beyond your mind and body. Underneath our mind’s thoughts and our body’s emotions is our natural state of love, joy and amusement. Take time each day to touch into your true nature.

To discover more insights into your depression, you might try talking to it as though it is a separate character in your life. You could close your eyes and have an inner dialogue with it or write a letter to it and write back to yourself from the perspective of your depression. Try asking it what it wants, what it is trying to tell you, how it is trying to help you. This may give you deeper awareness of why you feel depressed or what is missing in your life.

Interfering parents and inlaws

Gini Grey
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0
Interfering parents and inlaws

Question

My wife is pregnant with our first child. Should I really listen to my mother and mother in law’s advice? They both drive me crazy, and make me feel incompetent, telling me I should cook more etc. This in turn makes me want to leave my wife now, before things get worse.

Until this all started we had a sense of equality and stability in our relationship.

Now, whenever I think if something nice to do in a proactive way, I’m disempowered by a person (usually female, but I know gender is coincidental) nagging me to do it, before they know what I have planned. That just makes me reluctant to continue, as I do not wish to reinforce bad (disempowering) behaviour.

I want some sense of control of (at least part of) my personal life, in a family environment – is this realistic or should I just pack up and leave?

Thanks

Answer

Hello Reluctant Cook.

It’s totally understandable what you are going through.

You have a major shift happening in your home which affects your relationship with your wife, and you have other women (the other mothers) trying to control what you do. No wonder you feel like bolting. But this is a wonderful opportunity for you to own your space and not feel controlled by others. There’s been a game on the planet for years where women feel controlled by men and men feel controlled by women, but it’s time to end it. Being in resistance doesn’t help though as what we resist persists and sticks in our space.

My suggestion is for you to take time each day to find your inner power – your bigger, higher self who sees this as a big cosmic joke (through meditation, exercise or whatever helps you to find inner peace and touch into your empowerment). From this higher perspective you can more easily move into a state of ease and let the females’ pushing and nagging energy wash over you instead of stick to you.

Get in touch with what you really want to do and why you want to do it. For example, let’s say you’re feeling inspired to cook or do something helpful for your wife and then someone suggests you do it and you start to feel pressured. Just breathe, see the humor in the timing of the situation and then retune to what you want to do (not what the other wants you to do) – feel the good feeling you get from supporting your wife and soon to be child and remind yourself that this is your decision, not someone else’s. It might coincide with what another wants, but it is your choice.

As you stay focused on the positive aspects of your current situation, and stay as neutral and amused as you can with the difficult parts, you will be able to own your power and not give it away to others. They in turn will sense your new empowerment and most likely back off (at first they might challenge it, but stay in your higher power of amusement and inspiration). If you give in to frustration and powerlessness, this will feel awful, but as soon as you rise above it, you’ll feel good again.

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