What are free radicals?

A free radical is a highly reactive compound that releases excess energy. These compounds are present in the human body and occur during normal metabolic reactions, and may also enter in from the environment. Free radicals can come from the sun, solar flares, x-rays, cigarette smoke, alcohol, exhaust, chemicals and the ozone.

Free radicals interact with chemicals in your body, preventing normal cell functions, which can lead to many problems and can lead to cancer and heart disease.

To be able to prevent the damage caused by free radicals, you need to have enough antioxidants in your body to fight them back.

Free radicals damage the body by a process called oxidation (which means to lose electrons), which makes them unstable. Antioxidants give up one of their electrons to the free radicals, to stabilise them and therefore neutralise them.

Important free radicals facts

• Antioxidants scavenge for free radicals and either prevent, neutralise or kill them
• Free radicals are damaging to health and even cause premature ageing
• Free radicals can cause permanent damage to the cells of the body and can even mutate DNA which is how cancer forms
• Free radicals change the structure of LDL cholesterol, making it even more sticky and dangerous, thereby enabling it to clog arteries even more
• Many plants naturally produce antioxidants, which are very beneficial for preventing damage from free radicals

Why free radicals are important

People who are exposed to environmental free radicals (pollution, chemicals, cigarette smoke, excessive sun, heavy metals) should supplement their body’s antioxidant levels to protect the body cells from more damage.

Antioxidants are naturally available in all plant foods (especially fruits, vegetables, but also grains, seeds, legumes) and consuming enough of these each day will go a long way to protecting the cells in the body and reducing the level of free radicals in the body.

What is fluid retention?

Fluid retention (oedema) happens when fluid isn’t removed from tissues in the body by the kidneys and urinary system, instead it just accumulates excessively and swelling occurs.

The lymphatic system, which is a network of vessel, tissues and organs which is involved in the transport of substances, such as fluid in and out of cells. The urinary system, which includes the kidneys excretes the excessive fluids out of the body and the hormone that controls fluid in the the body is aldosterone, one of the hormones associated with the adrenal glands on the kidneys.

Fluid retention is defined as being:

• Generalised oedema – swelling throughout the whole body
• Localised oedema – when only particular parts of the body are affected by the swelling

Important fluid retention facts

• Fluid retention is a common symptom for women with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) or premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD)
• Dietary intake of potassium may assist with reducing fluid retention as it helps the body excrete more water and reduce the amount of fluid retained
• Foods rich in potassium include bananas, leafy green vegetables, vegetables and fruits in general
• People with fluid retention should avoid foods high in the mineral sodium as it increased the amount of fluid retained in the body. Foods that are exceedingly high in sodium are processed foods
• People with kidney disease often experience fluid retention as the kidneys are involved in removing excess fluids out of the body and if they are not functioning correctly, this can result in fluid retention
• People with heart disease often experience fluid retention

Why fluid retention is important

Generally, most causes of fluid retention happen for a variety of reasons:

• a reaction to hot weather
• high salt (sodium) intake
• the adrenal hormone aldosterone, which is associated with the amount of fluid the body retains
• the hormones associated with the menstrual cycle

Most cases of fluid retention are not serious, but in some cases, fluid retention can also be symptomatic of serious medical conditions such as heart, kidney or liver disease.

What is the flu vaccine?

The flu (influenza) is a viral infection that affects the nose, throat and lungs which affects from 5-20% of people all over the world each year, mostly during winter.

The flu vaccine is an inactivated vaccine – this means it contains influenza virus that is not alive. This is injected into the upper arm to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies to the influenza virus. The injected person’s immune system produce antibodies that attack and kill the virus and provide more memory antibodies to attack and kill the virus if the person is further infected later, so that they do not become as ill and often do not actually get a flu infection at all.

The flu vaccine was developed because many people get very sick from the flu, have to miss work or school, others need hospitalisation for the symptoms they develop, while some even die from it and other complications that arise from it. The flu vaccine can prevent this.

Important flu vaccine facts

• Flu vaccine should be given in late summer/early autumn to be really effective
• Many work places provide free (or really cheap) flu vaccines for those not eligible to get it for free
• Each year, different strains are added to the flu vaccine, depending on the flu strains that are in circulation at the time
• The flu vaccine prevents flu infection in about 70%-90% of healthy adults under 65 years
• People with a severe allergy to eggs should not get the flu vaccine – talk to your doctor about what you should do

Why the flu vaccine is important

Flu vaccine (the flu shot) is recommended for people who are more likely to get really sick from the flu if they get it as they are more susceptible to getting complications (such as pneumonia) from the flu if they catch it. The flu vaccine provides some immunity and lessens the symptoms of the flu if a person gets it.

The following groups of people are recommended to get the flu vaccine:

• People over 65 years of age
• People with chronic heart and lung conditions
• Babies and toddlers from 6 months – 5 years
• Healthcare workers
• Nursing home residents

National Immunisation Program Schedule in Australia provides a free influenze vaccine for people aged over 65 and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people 15-49 with health risks, and for those over 50.

How effective the flu vaccine is, depends on a few factors:

• the match between the virus strains in the vaccine and the virus strains that are infecting people the season
• the health and age of those getting the flu vaccine

What is flatulence?

Everybody has gas – burping or passing gas through the rectum is perfectly normal.

Most of the gas passed is odourless. The odour in gas comes from the sulphur produced by bacterial fermentation in the large intestine.

Gas can cause bloating and pain for some people. The amount of gas created and how sensitive the person is to the gas is what effects the level of discomfort.

Important flatulence facts

• People can normally pass approximately 14 passages of gas every 24 hours
• Passing gas is considered normal and healthy
• Burping is also referred to as passing wind
• Flatulence is also known as farting
• Swallowing air when eating is a common cause of gas

More about flatulence

Some foods cause more flatulence than others. If you are experiencing a lot of gas, you may try reducing the following foods:

• beans – all types
• cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, broccoli
• some fruits – peaches, pears, apples
• wholewheat and bran
• soft drinks (soda)
• milk and milk products

What is fat?

Fat is one of the necessary macronutrients (along with protein and carbohydrates) which is required in sufficiently large quantities each day.

Fats, which are chemically known as lipids, are defined as being one of the following:

• Triglycerides – can be saturated (from animal sources) or unsaturated (from plant sources)
• Phospholipids – similar chemical structure to triglycerides, are the main component of cell membranes
• Sterols – cholesterols from animal sources and phytosterols from plant sources

Important fat facts

• About 30% of the diet should come from fat
• Some saturated fat is necessary in the diet, but should not be the main constituent of all fat intake
• Some cholesterol is necessary in the diet, for a variety of purposes

Why fat is important

There are a great many reasons why fat is necessary and important in the diet:

• Phospholipids form the membrane around cells
• Cholesterol is required to make vitamin D and bile
• Essential fatty acids are required for energy and help to insulate the organs and protect deep tissues against heat loss and physical damage

What are enzymes?

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts – they are required in order to cause some type of reaction. Enzymes are made up of long chains of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.

Enzymes perform a vital function by controlling the metabolic processes whereby nutrients are converted into energy and fresh cell material. Enzymes also are the catalyst that help to break down food ingested into its simplest form.

Some examples of enzymes:

• amylase – an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates as soon as they are eaten
• pepsinogen – an enzyme in the stomach that activates pepsin
• gastric lipase – an enzyme in the stomach that has a minor action on digesting fats

Important enzymes facts

• Enzyme activity is affected by: temperature, blood and tissue pH, chemical environment
• Enzymes are quite specific about which reactions they act as catalyst
• Many drugs and poisons inhibit enzymes from carrying out their normal activity

Why enzymes are important

Cells use enzymes to grow, reproduce and create energy, and they often remove enzymes out of their cell walls too.

Enzymes allow the cells to carry out all the necessary chemical reactions inside them. Without the enzymes, cells would not survive long.

What is endoscopy?

Endoscopy is a medical procedure that allows a viewing of either the upper or lower gastrointestinal (GI) tract with an endoscopy.

The endoscope is a long, flexible tube with a light and camera at the end of it.

A gastroenterologist is the specialist doctor who performs both of the two endoscopy procedures:

• upper GI endoscopy – to view the oesophagus, stomach and duodenum (first part of the small intestine) the endoscope is swallowed; the patient is given a numbing throat spray and light sedation before the procedure
• lower GI endoscopy – to view the colon (large intestine), the endoscope is inserted into the rectum; the patient is given a laxative and lightly sedated before the procedure

Important endoscopy facts

• Endoscopy is used as a tool to definitely diagnose any type of ulcers (gastric, duodenal, peptic)
• Endoscopy is a minimally invasive medical procedure
• This procedure has a low risk of complications (usually less than 1%)

Why endoscopy is important

Endoscopy may be used to determine the reason for any number of physical symptoms:

• abdominal pain
• bleeding
• indigestion
• nausea
• reflux
• swallowing difficulties
• vomiting

What is norepinephrine?

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is used by the sympathetic nervous system to send messages to other nerves and also muscle tissue.

Norepinephrine is also a hormone that is produced and secreted by the medulla (inner part) of the adrenal glands in direct response by nervous stimulation.

Norepinephrine causes blood pressure to rise, the heart to beat faster, increases metabolism and blood glucose levels, and increases energy production and blood flow to the extremities.

Important norepinephrine facts

• The amino acid tyrosine is a precursor to norepinephrine
• Dopamine needs to be synthesised to produce norepinephrine
• Norepinephrine is known as a neurohormone as it acts as both a neurotransmitter and hormone
• Norepinephrine is also known as noradrenaline
• Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter of the adrenergic nervous system
• Norepinephrine stimulates the body systems to prepare to “fight or flight”, which is a well-known human preservation reaction to any dangerous situations

Why norepinephrine is important

Norepinephrine activates two types of cell membrane receptors:

• A-receptors – contracts smooth muscle (except in the intestines)
• B-receptors – relaxes smooth muscles; increases rate and force of heart muscle contractions

Norepinephrine is also an important neurotransmitter in many parts of the central nervous system, where it participates in blood pressure regulation, arousal and mood.

What is epinephrine (adrenaline)?

Epinephrine (or adrenaline) is a neuro-hormone that is produced and secreted by the medulla (inner part) of the adrenal glands in direct response by nervous stimulation. Epinephrine is not only a hormone, but it is also one of the important neurotransmitters that is used by the nervous system to send messages to other nerves and muscle tissue.

Epinephrine the hormone, is produced by the adrenal glands when the body is faced with a stressful (or even life-threatening) situation that causes them to either stand and fight or get away – this is called the “flight or flight” response, which is the way humans react when they are frightened and possibly in danger.

Epinephrine causes blood pressure to raise, the heart rate to beat faster, increased metabolism and blood glucose levels, increased energy production and blood flow to the extremities is also increased.

Important epinephrine (adrenaline) facts

• Most cells of the body are affected by epinephrine (when it is stimulated to be produced)
• Epinephrine is a neurotransmitter of the adrenergic nervous system
• The amino acid tyrosine is a precursor which is necessary for the synthesis of Epinephrine
• Cholesterol is also required to synthesize Epinephrine
• Constant levels of stress can elevate Epinephrine levels, which may not be advisable over the long term
• Exercise burns off excess epinephrine (as well as allowing muscles to reduce tension and stress, by providing an outlet for the release of excess energy)
• Epinephrine, in the short term, to deal with a dangerous or stressful situation is necessary and beneficial as it makes you feel more alert, awake and aware
• Epinephrine is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved with alertness and mental focus
• Epinephrine stimulates the body systems to prepare to “fight or flight”, which is a well-known human preservation reaction to any dangerous situations

Why epinephrine (adrenaline) is important

Epinephrine is injected to treat life-threatening allergic reactions caused by a variety of substances: chemicals, fods, insect bites, latex, medication and other items.

Symptoms of allergic reactions include:

• Diarrhoea
• Hives
• Itching
• Loss of bladder control
• Low blood pressure
• shortness of breath
• stomach cramps
• swelling
• wheezing

Epinephrine as a medication is called a sympathomimetic agents, which works by relaxing the muscles in the airways and also by tightening blood vessels to allow recovery from the allergic reaction.

What is the oesophagus?

The oesophagus/esophagus (or gullet) is a long, muscular tube that connects the throat, specifically the pharynx, with the stomach. The oesophagus is located between the trachea (windpipe) and spine.

The oesophagus moves food down by a contraction and release pattern called peristalsis. This peristalsis action allows the swallowed food to be moved into the stomach for digestion. Since the oesophagus is lined with glands that produce mucous, the whole tube is always moistened and this assists with swallowing and peristalsis.

Important oesophagus facts

• In adults, the oesophagus is about 25cm (10 inches) long
• Heartburn (acid reflux) is caused by stomach acid refluxing or splashing up into the oesophagus

Why the oesophagus is important

There are several layers of tissue that make up the oesophagus – which makes up its strength and enables the effective peristalsis action that it performs on a daily basis.